Friedrich Froebels Theory and Ideas on Play

Friedrich Froebels Theory and Ideas on Play Examine Froebels thoughts regarding Play, and the Environments and Resources which support childrens improvement. Ponder the Value of Froebels thoughts today. Show your answer with models from your adolescence and any perceptions you have of youngsters at home or in an early years settings. Presentation Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) was a German teacher generally celebrated for his knowledge into the significance of the early long stretches of a childs life to their turn of events and later life. Besides he additionally thought about that the impact of early life reached out past the instructive accomplishment into wellbeing and society on the loose. Froebel made kindergartens (childrens gardens) as he saw a childs development to resemble a plant developing and flourishing where the correct conditions exist. Inside the kindergartens he used his standards and works on, including experience of out of entryways exercises, as a significant piece of the instructive practice. He built up a progression of blessings which are intended to be a blessing in two detects: right off the bat in the feeling of being given to the youngster as a blessing and besides as an endowment of improvement. The blessings, which are learning devices, were wanted to be age pertinent and to support advancement and self-actualisation in the youngster (Provenzo, 2009) p88-89). The kindergarten and Froebels approach have massively affected early learning and still has pertinence today. Froebels impact in the current day The early long stretches of life are imperative to the general improvement of a youngster. During this time the enthusiastic parameters are found out along with approaches to cooperate with others and learning through encounters (Sroufe, 1997 p.1-8). So as to expand the advantage of this time right incitement and arrangement of instruments/toys that will empower the youngster to investigate and find out about themselves and their general surroundings are vital. Froebel explicitly contrived his standards for a very long time 1-7. The Froebel approach includes the standards, instructional method and condition. The standards take an all encompassing perspective on the individual childs progress and perceives their uniqueness, limit and potential. Furthermore play apparently is principal and significant in the childs improvement. Some portion of the learning incorporates comprehension, and working with, the spot of mankind in the characteristic world. At long last the standards perceive the trustworthiness of youth and of the kid as a major aspect of a family and of the network (Hermann, 1926 p.201-205). The instructional method includes having learned and properly qualified experts to give gifted educated perception regarding the youngsters and give fitting direction and educating. Key to the way toward instructing is that is must come to the innovative, inventive, emblematic, semantic, numerical, melodic, tasteful, logical, physical, social, good, social and otherworldly parts of the kid. This plainly shows how wide a scope of incitement is required. The childs improvement isn't only the duty of the instructors and it is significant that the guardians/gatekeepers of the kid and their teachers work agreeably together to keep up a reliable methodology. Play is integral to the procedure and there should be a feeling of direction for the youngster in that play along with an understanding that the kid must be seen comprehensively as a reasoning, feeling individual. Consolation is utilized as opposed to discipline to assist the youngster with expanding their self-assurance and self-rule. Play can likewise be utilized to enable the youngster to figure out how to be capable work alone and furthermore with others (Willinsky, 1990 p154-5) . The earth where the youngster is set will likewise have a significant job in their turn of events. While the earth should be protected it should likewise empower interest, incitement and challenge. Indoor and open air exercises extend the potential territories of learning and differ nature giving premium and assortment. Froebal likewise observed working in a situation that is necessary to the network to be significant in helping the youngster to be both autonomous and related and to get uniqueness and network and duty and opportunity. These fundamental standards were set out initially by Froebel in his 1826 book The Education of Man. He saw his own adolescence with constrained parental consideration and recollected his dejection and utilizing this as his beginning stage he built up his standards. He likewise drew on the information on past instructors when building up his own arrangement of training (Polito, 1996)(p. 161-173). This point may well should be returned to now with the approach of PCs and TV programs explicitly focused on small kids. Research should be planned for deciding the impacts of absence of eye to eye consideration from guardians and different grown-ups at home and picking up being given over to mechanical methods. There would give off an impression of being relationships between's Froebals circumstance and that of numerous kids today. Absence of connection with other kids and a scope of grown-ups limits the conceivable scope of learning circumstances and may make issues with social communication sometime down the road in spite of the fact that examination into this region should be led to completely comprehend the impacts. Having just the TV or PC for amusement will likewise genuine breaking point the childs creative mind through absence of individual association and truly being engaged with the play. This may influence engine abilities too through absence of utilization and a decreased scope of development. In my own youth I was constantly urged to utilize innovative play and would make theater sets wit h my companions and we would perform little manikin appears for our folks. This kind of play included an assortment of ideas; make work to make the sets, semantic aptitudes to compose the plays, incorporated play by playing with others and finesse to utilize manikins. Froebels techniques are as yet legitimate today and can give kids a wide scope of encounters and ingrain in them interest and intrigue that can be based upon all through life. In spite of to what extent prior these standards were first evolved they are still completely suitable today maybe in light of the fact that they identify with the center parts of advancement leaving space for the strategy to be fluctuated as vital. The blessings, for example, blessing 2 (a lot of 3 squares one square, one circle and one chamber) can be moved along with bars and strings to give various prospects to associations. These structures acquaint the kid with geometry and furthermore take into consideration free articulation inside individual play. Blessing 2 was a structure that so encapsulated Froebals bits of knowledge that it was utilized to make a stone development over his grave (Froebal webn.d.) [online]. There are many toys accessible today that have comparative prospects and it is significant that kids are both permitted to play alone with these things yet additionally that guardians share play with them also to help with incorporated play. One of the key components inside Froebels believing was the association with nature and the regular world. I recall when I was youthful that at school we had a wild nursery at the back of the play area and we had classes sitting here finding out about plants and how they developed taking motivation based on what was developing around us. In current settings a few schools can support kids in their own school gardens. While this isn't fitting for exceptionally little kids their advantage and energy about the outside world can be started by permitting them to play outside and acquainting them with widely varied vegetation, for example, watching spring bulbs coming up. Numerous guardians may likewise require help with this territory as they have not had these encounters themselves and along these lines experience issues in helping their youngsters to create thusly (Taylor, 2004 p.163-178) . It is, in this way, significant that youngsters approach an assortment of situations so as to have the chance to comprehend and find out about various settings. Froebal distinguished that youngsters will have their own individual considerations and comprehension of the things around them and by cooperation and pretend build up their insight further. (Puckett, 2004 p. 45-6) . He depicted play as crafted by kids (Miller, 2009)(p.46-50). The current financial circumstance may affect the cash accessible to guardians. In any case, kids can profit by less progressively suitable instant toys and the opportunity to get innovative and make their own amusement. Youngsters will, for example, frequently be increasingly inspired by the container something comes in and convert the crate into a vehicle or tank or dolls house. Such innovative play will grow the childs capacities in various zones (Robson, 2006 p. 39-55) f. The Government plot Every Child Matters perceives the significance of the early long periods of life and sets out a scope of recommendations to help youngsters, guardians and each one of those associated with the consideration and training of kids (H.M. Government, 2003). Through this arrangement there is a wide scope of data and direction accessible that can help with giving great, safe conditions and suitable assets to encourage learning. This incorporates such assets as Early Years Learning and Development Literature Review (accessible as a free download) delivered by the Government which contains an abundance of proof based data to aid all regions of kid improvement (Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Family, 2009) End Froebels vision was clear and point by point and still is similarly substantial today. The manner by which it is communicated may have grown further from the first however the essential standards despite everything remain constant. The early years are essential to the general advancement of a kid so it is imperative to give the best condition and assets to encourage learning. Most youngsters should have the option to proceed with long lasting figuring out how to manage the difficulties introduced in grown-up life so animating them at an opportune time to appreciate learning and imagination sets them up for their fates.

Chilean Mine Free Essays

More than two months caught underground holding on to be saved their holding up had at last reached a conclusion on October 13, 2010. Two months back on August fifth, 2010, in the city of Copiapo, Chile, close to the Atacama desert an underground mining had crumpled catching 33 excavators 2300 feet underneath the surface. Presently, given in light of the current situation that the mine had a past filled with past mishaps and passings, this persuaded the 33 men underground had kicked the bucket in the thunder. We will compose a custom article test on Chilean Mine or on the other hand any comparable point just for you Request Now What will happen to them? Being liberal in such an agony circumstance, was troublesome nowing that the diggers were as yet fit as a fiddle. There must be something done to support them. The main thing that should be done is comprehend the emergency or catastrophe, simply after that can a choice is made as how to deal with the circumstance. In a circumstance like this it is ideal to designate somebody who can deal with the conversations that emerge and control the media. somebody who can break new ground and be earnest In executing the main job. Somebody who Is not reluctant to pose inquiries and Is knowledgeable with business rule: When you can't respond to the inquiry, get somebody who can. (Emergency Management fifth Para. Not exclusively will this be the best for the organization however for the groups of the diggers too. A few contemplations to recollect is that the crowd might be sincerely bothered and when speaking with them about the point that we are straight forward. There must be control in such a tumultuous circumstance. Their desires need to be tended to. How rapidly will this be settled? At the point when will their friends and family get back home They need answers, The requirements of the families getting the messages of this occurrence would need to realize that their families would be returning home securely and that there is an arrangement to get the know out I OF3 saTely. Likewise, Is tnere an emotionally supportive network to nelp out tne Tamllles going tnrougn t emergency? Some relatives, for example, the offspring of those caught beneath may require treatment. The families might need to know also if there will be any remuneration for what had occurred. Will the organization do what’s right or Just leave? Another potential need about accepting a message would be that, is the organization safe? What measures have occurred to guarantee the security of the workers? Have preventive measures been taken so it won’t happen once more? The individuals would need to realize that the organization is accomplishing something for their kindred workers caught underneath. They would need to see that the organization is finding a way to show that they care about what befell their workers and that something like this would not occur once more. Moves that would be made before conveying the message is ensure that the one individual named is a specialist to peruse a notice and handle any inquiries that emerge in people in general. Likewise, now and again of confusion there has to some degree of solace, mention to them what they would need to hear. Telling them that their friends and family are well, and that all means are being taken to bring them home securely can present to them some simplicity. In any emergency or disaster there are precautionary measures take and how to deal with the circumstance. The principle concern is, the means by which is the message being conveyed and how the crowd will respond to it. The key part is to impart and show compassion toward the workers and families. Such a message would be conveyed face to face, eye to eye particularly with the families in question. Another way would be to communicated it with the goal that city sees your attempting to do what is ideal to bring them home securely. To take cover behind letters and not be an around shows no sympathy or worries for the people that are included. Our considerations and supplications go out to those influenced by this catastrophe. Update to Family Members and Employees As you may have heard on August fifth, 2010, there was a deplorable mishap in the mines of Chile found somewhere down in the Atacama desert. The mine had collapsed catching 33 of our excavators 2300 feet underground. They are working constantly to discover the men and guarantee that they have enough food and water to support them while they hold on to be saved. There are three enormous groups including the mastery of N. A. S. A chipping away at guaranteeing their sheltered come back to their friends and family. We realize that working in the mining usiness can regularly be hard and unfeeling yet I guarantee we are doing everything conceivable to bring them home. As more data or changes create, the families will be the first to be told and if there are any inquiries or needs please don't hesitate to get in touch with us. Our considerations and petitions are with you and your friends and family. Step by step instructions to refer to Chilean Mine, Papers

Coping With Criticism When You Have ADD

Coping With Criticism When You Have ADD ADHD Adult ADD/ADHD Print Coping With Criticism When You Have ADD Your ADD shouldnt stop you from managing criticism effectively By Keath Low Keath Low, MA, is a therapist and clinical scientist with the Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities at the University of North Carolina. She specializes in treatment of ADD/ADHD. Learn about our editorial policy Keath Low Updated on July 21, 2019 Westend61/Getty Images More in ADHD Adult ADD/ADHD Diagnosis Treatment Symptoms Living With ADD/ADHD School Parenting As an adult with ADD, you may have received a lifetime of negative feedback around behaviors. It is no wonder a person would feel sensitive! Add to this a difficulty in managing emotions and perhaps at times a tendency to overreact because you feel things so deeply. All of these factors make criticism especially difficult. Handling Criticism With ADD While you can’t control what others will do or say, you can work to control how you react. What are some ways to handle criticism so that it doesn’t lead to angry outbursts, injury to your personal or work relationships, or further damage to your own self-esteem? Develop an awareness of your reactions. How do you tend to respond to criticism?  Do you respond differently to different people? Are you likely to react defensively even when the criticism is earned? For example, do you get angry when youre asked to account for a careless error?  Be aware of the situation and your relationship to the person delivering the criticism. If this is a work situation â€" and the critical individual is your supervisor â€"  you will need to be very careful about managing your feelings. Often, asking for time to respond is the best strategy (counting to ten before responding is also helpful when possible!).When faced with a situation in which you are receiving negative feedback from another person, try to step back and explore your feelings. Use self-talk. “I am hurt and angry. Is this an overreaction?”If you know there will be an interaction that is difficult, practice your responses beforehand. Rehearse in front of a mirror or even in front of a friend or adult family member. Seek their feedback and advice.If you slip up and find that you have overreacted to a situation, calmly leave and return to the conversation when you are feeling in better control.Be kind to yourself. Try not to turn the negative feedback inward or dwell on it to the point it is hurtful to your self-esteem. Learn from whatever is helpful feedback and disregard the rest.If you are unsure whether your feelings about interaction are appropriate or exaggerated, talk with a trusted friend or adult family member to get feedback.Be very careful when responding to email, texting, and social media. It is tempting to type and send an immediate response, but you may regret it seconds later. Often, the best response is to do nothing at all for at least a few minutes while you take the  time to think through the best answer to the critical message youve received.When responding to email, read and reread what youve written. Edit out any content that seems to be inappropria te or too strongly worded. Then â€"  check to be sure you are sending your response ONLY to the person who should read it, and NOT to any ccd individuals.

Criminal Rehabilitation - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 973 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Psychology Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? Once a criminal, always a criminal: myth or fact? Introduction The introduction of psychotherapy programs into criminal rehabilitation settings has been vitally documented primarily within only the past few decades. This has contributed insight into a different realm of criminal rehabilitation that has yet to fully be understood by psychologists and jail managers alike. Estimates run as high as 70% that the majority of inmates released from prison in the US, are convicted of new crimes within five years (McGuire, 2008, p.29). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Criminal Rehabilitation" essay for you Create order Existential psychotherapy programs suggest an effective means for criminal rehabilitation and for reduction of jail populations. Effective criminal rehabilitation programs would contribute to notably reduce recidivism rates, consequently, decreasing jail populations. Kramer (1971) suggests that art therapy is ideal for working with aggressive children as aggression is an abundant source of energy for creative activity. The creative process both utilizes and neutralizes the clients pent-up aggression. By analysing the impact of such programs among children, psychologists are able to develop rehabilitations programs to undertake with adults. When addressing the aggressive aspect of numerous inmates, these latest programs aim high with intent to achieve desired reductions of displayed aggression and potentially the cause of recidivism. Validation of the previous statements could generate a wide variety of answers from more than one academic discipline. According to Repko (2 005), complex issues of this condition necessitate the use of the interdisciplinary approach to be thoroughly explored. Additionally, the discussion concerning the relationship between effective existential psychotherapy approaches and recidivism cannot be fully explained by scholars from one single discipline. Finally, the debate about whether effective psychotherapy programs can positively influence offender rehabilitation adequately enough to shrink recidivism rates, therefore, reducing jail populations, is cross cultural and addresses a practical societal problem. By meeting these criteria, this topic warrants investigation using the interdisciplinary approach (Repko, 2005, p.88). Given the broad nature of such a topic, ways in which an existential approach to psychotherapy can affect individuals could be discussed from the vantage point of several disciplines; in fact, most of the published research on the matter is integrative in nature. Disciplines that accurately encompass the entirety of this topic include psychology, sociology, art, economics, socioeconomics and humanities. Most pertinent to this research, however, are the disciplines of psychology, sociology and art. As a discipline which links behaviour with cognitive processes (Repko, 2005), psychology will provide a context in which to understand the emotional and cognitive nature of who psychotherapy influences. Given the continued rise in prison populations, a premium is placed on identifying efficient, yet effective prison based interventions (Morgan, 2006). Society is composed of individuals; therefore, to understand the sociological implications of psychotherapy or recidivism, it is first necessary to understand psychotherapys effect on an individual level. Prison inmates are some of the most maladjusted people in society. Most of the inmates have had too little discipline or too much, come from broken homes, and have no self-esteem (Kennedy, 1984, p.275). Art as ar t therapy provides a unique solution for children and adults with special needs or issues, as it addresses many aspects of the individual, including those of cognitive, emotional, and social nature that are hard to address initially separately within that personality (Nissimov-Nahum, 2008, p.1). Through the interdisciplinary process, the separate ideas presented by psychologists, sociologists, and art therapists will synthesize into a new whole, thus resulting in a significantly more comprehensive analysis. Despite being such a prolific form of treatment, psychotherapys ability to cognitively and behaviourally affect the mind is remarkably essential. Methods of research for this discussion will comprise of exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems, constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem, and empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence. Another method will be to study the results of e xperiments done by scientists and to perform statistical analyses. The purpose of this paper is to place a premium on identifying efficient, yet effective prison based interventions. Doing so will result in a hope of dissipating the problem until there is a more detailed understanding of an effective means for criminal rehabilitation and for reduction of jail populations. References Morgan, R. D., Kroner, D. G., Mills, J. F. (2006). Group Psychotherapy in Prison: Facilitating Change Inside the Walls [Electronic version]. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy. from Springer Link (10.1007/s10879-006-9017x). Nieberding, R. J., Frackowiak, M., Bodholdt, R. H., Rubel, J.G. (2000). Beware the Razorwire: Psychology Behind Bars[Electronic version]. Journal of Police and CriminalPsychology, 15(2), 11-20. from SpringerLink(10.1007/BF02802661). Ryba, N. L. (2008). Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for OffenderHopelessness: Lessons from Treatment of Forensic Inpatients[Electronic version]. Journal of ContemporaryPsychotherapy,38(2), 73-80. from SpringerLink(10.1007/s10879-007-9070-0). Gittelman, M. (1997). Psychosocial Rehabilitation for theMentally Disabled: What Have We Learned? [Electronicversion]. Psychiatric Quarterly, 68(4), 393-406. FromSpringerLink (10.1023/A:1025451215976). Kennedy, D. B. (1984). Clinical Sociology and CorrectionalCounseling [Electron ic version]. Crime Delinquency,30(2),269-292. from SageJournals(10.1177/0011128784030002006). Morgan, R. D., Winterowd, C. L., Fuqua, D. R. (1999). TheEfficacy of an Integrated Theoretical Approach to GroupPsychotherapy for Male Inmates [Electronic version].Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 29(3), 203-222. FromSpringerLink (10.1023/A:1021969118113). Nissimov-Nahum, E. (2008). A model for art therapy in educationalsettings with children who behave aggressively (Manuscript)[Electronic version]. The Arts of Psychotherapy, 1-33. FromSpringerLink (10.1016/j.aip.2008.07.003). McGuire, J., Bilby, C. A., Hatcher, R. M., Hollin, C. R.(2008). Evaluation of structured cognitive–behaviouraltreatment programmes in reducing criminal recidivism[Electronic version]. Journal of Experimental Criminology,4(1), 21-40. from SpringerLink (10.1007/s11292-007-9047-8). Overholser, J. C. (2005). Contemporary Psychotherapy: PromotingPersonal Responsibility for Therapeutic Change [Electronicversion]. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 35(4),369376. from SpringerLink (10.1007/s10879-005-6699-4). Pallone, N. J., Hennessy, J. J. (2003). Sourcebook ofRehabilitation and Mental Health Practice. Springer US.Retrieved September 1, 2008, from SpringerLink(10.1007/0-30647893-5_33). Repko, A. (2005). Interdisciplinary Practice: A Student Guide to Research and Writing (Preliminary ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Custom Publishing. Turner, E., Rubin, S. (2002). Once a Sex Offender Always aSex Offender: Myth or Fact? [Electronic version] Journal ofPolice and Criminal Psychology, 17(2), 32-44. fromSpringerLink (10.1007/BF02807113).

Marriages in Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen Essay

Marriage in the 19th century was a woman’s priority. Many times women married for social status or attraction but hardly ever for true love. In many cases the happiness of a marriage was based on whether the girl was beautiful and lively and the boy handsome and competent, and whether they were attracted to each other. Jane Austen would not believe that the happiness of marriage was based upon attraction, she believed it should be based upon love. In her novel Pride and Prejudice, she illustrates three main reasons for marriage, true love, attraction, and economics. The two main characters, Elizabeth Bennet and Fitzwilliam Darcy are an example of marriage for true love. They are two of the few characters in the book that have a†¦show more content†¦Later on in the novel, Darcy says to Miss Bingley, Your conjecture is totally wrong, I assure you. My mind was more agreeably engaged. I have been meditating on the very great pleasure which a pair of fine eyes in the fac e of a pretty woman can bestow (25). Here he is talking about Elizabeth, and for the first time we see that he is starting to like her. He tells Miss Bingley that he had the pleasure of staring at Elizabeth, including her eyes and face. This is the first time in the book where we see that Darcy is starting to fall in love with Elizabeth. Elizabeth and Darcy’s marriage is based on respect, understanding and love, which took a long time to build and which is why they will be happy together. Austen demonstrates a marriage for attraction in Lydia and Wickham’s marriage. Lydia and Wickham’s marriage occurred as a result of Mr. Darcy’s assistance. When Lydia and Wickham run away together Wickham has no intention of marrying Lydia. It was only after Darcy paid Wickham off that Wickham consented to marry Lydia. If Darcy hadn’t paid Wickham off then the entire Bennet family would be ruined. Lydia wrote in her letter to Mrs. Forester how much she thought sh e cared about Wickham, â€Å"I am going to Gretna Green, and if you cannot guess with who ... there is but one man in the world I love, and he is an angel. I should never be happy without him, so think it no harm to be off† (242). Lydia isShow MoreRelatedMarriage in Jane Austen ´s Pride and Prejudice1399 Words   |  6 Pagestheir literary works. Jane Austen is only one example of this type of author who exemplifies a style of repetition by using repetitious themes. Theme is a very important literary element in any piece of literature. Themes teach the reader a life lesson, often times lending advice or a point of view. In Jane Austen’s novel, Pride and Prejudice, she uses themes which can also be found in other pieces of literature written by Austen. These themes deal with the subjects of; marriage, good breeding andRead MoreMarriage in Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen Essay1386 Words   |  6 PagesMarriage In Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen introduces the major thematic concept of marriage and financial wealth. Throughout the novel, Austen depicts various relationships that exhibit the two recurring themes. Set during the regency period, the perception of marriage revolves around a universal truth. Austen claims that a single man â€Å"must be in want of a wife.† Hence, the social stature and wealth of men were of principal importance for women. Austen, however, hints that the opposite may proveRead MoreMarriage By Jane Austen s Pride And Prejudice 1674 Words   |  7 PagesHailey Shipp Mrs. Wilson Hon 11 24 March 2017 Marriages in the 19th Century For women in the 1800s, marriage was used to escape the uncertainty of the future, and was portrayed as an obligatory duty because women were entirely reliant on men. However, Jane Austen argued that people would marry strictly for money and stability, rather than true love. In Pride and Prejudice, she used Mrs. Bennet, Darcy, Mr. Bingley, and Jane as a way to introduce the topic of how society was during this era and theRead MorePortrayal of Marriage in Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen Essay2073 Words   |  9 Pagesof Marriage in Pride and Prejudice   Ã‚  Ã‚   Jane Austens novel Pride and Prejudice portrays varying attitudes to marriage. The intricate social network that pervades the novel is one that revolves around the business of marriage. Through her female characters the reader sees the different attitudes to marriage and the reasons that these women have for marrying. These depend on their social status and their personal values. The reader is shown the most prevalent and common view of marriage heldRead MoreLove and Marriage in Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen Essay2052 Words   |  9 Pagesis your response to the way love and marriages are presented in Pride and Prejudice by JaneAusten? Pride and Prejudice was written in 1796-7 during the romantic period and was published in 1813, it is set between 1797 and 1815, in rural England when the agriculture society was changing into a modern industrial nation. Pride and Prejudice is about love and marriage, personal happiness, andamongst other things, status and reputation. Pride and Prejudice is a popular romantic novel, which Austenherself Read MoreMarriage Vs. Love Jane Austen s Pride And Prejudice 1461 Words   |  6 PagesRomance 17 November 2015 Marriage vs. Love Jane Austen, author of Pride and Prejudice, wrote in an era where considerations of social class and economic status were central to the institution of marriage. This notion is demonstrated throughout the novel by exploring character’s ideas and definitions regarding love and marriage. The main character, Elizabeth, defies almost all stereotypes of early 19th century women in England. She, unlike Charlotte and Jane, believes that marriage is based around trueRead MoreEssay on Marriage Without Love in Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen1640 Words   |  7 Pagesfirst sentence of Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen satirizes womens’ inability to be self sufficient and respected in society without a husband. Elizabeth Bennet resembles Austen as young women, as she chose to be old maid rather than be married inappropriately. Elizabeth cannot stand the frenzies her mother and sisters get in over superficial marriages. Unlike her sisters, Elizabeth is set on finding love, and will not sacrifice love for any absurd amount of money or status. Austen wrote during theRead More How Society Viewed Love and Marriage in Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen1898 Words   |  8 PagesHow Society Viewed Love and Marriage in Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen Jane Austen was born in 1775 and spent most of her life in the countryside in a village called Steventon, Hampshire. She was the daughter of a clergyman, Reverend George Austen and her mother was called Cassandra Austen. She had a brief education starting at the age of seven and ending at eleven, when she settled at home. Like women in Austen’s society, she had little education due to the beliefs at the time; theRead More With particular reference to the novel opening, how does Jane Austen1247 Words   |  5 Pagesthe novel opening, how does Jane Austen present the role of women in pride and prejudice? Pride and Predujice With particular reference to the novel opening, how does Jane Austen present the role of women in pride and prejudice? Pride and prejudice was first published in 1893, this was a time when it just became acceptable for women to write and publish books. Pride and prejudice was set in the early 19th century in rural England. Pride and Prejudice is the story of Mr and Mrs BennetRead MoreComparative Study: Letters to Alice and Pride and Prejudice1502 Words   |  7 Pagesportrayed in Pride and Prejudice are creatively reshaped in Letters to Alice. The two texts, Letters to Alice and Pride and Prejudice, mirror and contrast the central values shared and explored by evaluating them; presenting them against Jane Austens context and that of Fay Weldon. Mirroring Austens novel, Weldon presents the central values for women such as the social values of moral behaviour, independence, and, literary values of reading and writing, from Pride and Prejudice and adapts them

Mental Retardation and Child Abuse Free Essays

Sling Blade is a film about a mentally retarded individual by the name of Karl, who murders his mother and her lover – Karl’s classmate – at the age of twelve.   Subsequently, Karl is institutionalized.   Upon release, Karl returns to his hometown where he befriends a young boy, Frank. We will write a custom essay sample on Mental Retardation and Child Abuse or any similar topic only for you Order Now    The boy’s father had committed suicide, and his mother is dating Doyle, who abuses both Frank and his mother.   Eventually, Karl is responsible for the murder of Doyle as well, as he must put an end to the abuse that he is witnessing in the lives of Frank and his mother. The story of the film is atypical seeing that Karl is a mentally retarded individual who takes action against child abuse.   Scientific research, on the other hand, has revealed that it is usually the mentally retarded individual who must suffer abuse simply because he cannot take care of himself. As an example, Morse, Sahler, and Friedman studied twenty five children who had been abused, out of which forty two percent were mentally retarded.   All except one of the mentally retarded children in the study had already been diagnosed as mentally retarded before they were abused.   Hence, it is obvious that the abusers knew that the mentally retarded children are vulnerable to abuse. According to Morse, Sahler, and Friedman, people who spend time with mentally retarded children are usually aware that these children are not always able to physically or verbally defend themselves.   Moreover, these children are not always able to describe their abuse to others.   Typically, they are also unable to differentiate between proper and improper verbal communication and/or physical contact, regardless of whether the physical contact is sexual or violent in nature. Lastly, mentally retarded children are truly dependent on other people for all manners of assistance.   This makes them more trusting toward their caretakers as well as others.   Also according to the authors, passivity as well as compliance stem from the trust and dependency of the mentally retarded child.   Those who abuse mentally retarded children are, therefore, taking undue advantage of the trust shown by these children. Sandgrund, Gaines, and Green have also conducted a study on children.   Out of one hundred and twenty children studied by the authors, sixty had been abused, thirty had been neglected, and another thirty had not been abused at all.   The authors reported that twenty five percent of the abused children in their study had been diagnosed as mentally retarded. Twenty percent of the neglected children had similarly been recognized as mentally retarded, while only three percent of the children who had never been abused were mentally retarded.   The findings of this study reveal that mentally retarded children are quite likely to be abused.   The fact that Karl of Sling Blade was never abused – rather, he had the intelligence to differentiate between proper and improper verbal communication and/or physical contact – shows that the film is about an unusual mentally retarded individual.   Sandgrund, Gaines, and Green write that mentally retarded children are normally hesitant to report instances of abuse because they fear losing the essential relationships with their caretakers. Furthermore, these children are not always believed if they manage to report abuse.   Seeing that Karl was not afraid to lose his caretaker at the time he killed his mother reveals that this mentally retarded child was definitely not a typical one. McFadden has also written about the abuse of mentally ill children, including those who are mentally retarded.   Reporting a study conducted by the New York State Commission on Quality of Care for the Mentally Disabled, McFadden writes that abuse in institutions for mentally retarded children is higher than abuse in institutions for children who are mentally fit.   Also according to the author: In analyzing those cases, the commission found that abuse most often occurred in leisure-  time areas, such as recreation rooms and sleeping quarters, where children congregate without  structured activities.   It also found that boys over 12 years of age and children who exhibited  disturbing conduct were at the highest risk of abuse. In 16 percent of the cases, the study said, a finding of abuse or neglect was made by the  reporting facility.   In another 18 percent, the facility found misconduct by an employee but no  evidence of abuse.   In 66 percent, some corrective action was taken and in nearly 20 percent  disciplinary action was taken against at least one employee. Most of those responsible for the abuse or neglect were not new employees.   The study said  80 percent of them had worked at the facility at least one year and 50 percent had been  employed more than three years (McFadden). Karl was fortunate because his mother did not abuse him.   He was not abused in an institution either.   All the same, research evidence suggests that mentally retarded children are highly vulnerable to abuse.   In unusual cases, perhaps mentally retarded individuals like Karl may be able to struggle against child abuse.   Then again, they might have to take drastic actions such as those of Karl in order to end child abuse.   After all, mentally retarded individuals are not considered credible if they simply manage to report abuse. Works Cited McFadden, Robert D. â€Å"Child Abuse High in New York Mental Centers.† New York Times. 1 Dec 1987. 17 Nov 2007. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE7DA1039F932A35751C1A96194826. Morse, C.W., O.Z. Sahler, and S.B. Friedman. â€Å"A Three-Year Follow-Up Study of Abused and Neglected Children.† American Journal of Diseases of Children. Vol. 120 (1970): pp. 439-446. Sandgrund, H., R. Gaines, and A. Green. â€Å"Child Abuse and Mental Retardation: A Problem of Cause and Effect.† American Journal of Mental Deficiency. Vol. 79 (1974): pp. 327-330. Sling Blade. Dir. Billy Bob Thorton. 1996.             How to cite Mental Retardation and Child Abuse, Essay examples

Management Issues How to Motivate Employees

From various studies, motivation is always a key to excellent performance in any organization. However, difficulties arise when it comes to how to encourage the labor force of the firm. For instance, some people use money as the main factor for motivating their employees (Robbins and Agnatius 45).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Management Issues: How to Motivate Employees? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is obvious that everything in the current world is controlled by money. In case the reward is right, good human associations will offer an extra zest to a company, thereby inspiring the employees to work even harder. This implies that inadequate financial remuneration cannot be compensated by high-quality human relations. The person who has motivated me and continues to inspire me is my employer. I am always assured of my job security, support at any time, and guidance in areas where I have no idea on what t o do. For instance, he realizes that in order to create a good working environment that will lead to high and excellent performance, motivation must be given the first priority. It is important, while motivating employees, to show some care because some working environments are full of challenges, and thus without support, any worker may just give up. Therefore, the manager always effectively communicates the relevant information that I need in order successfully to carry out any given task. This is because in most cases, workers always desire to be associated with or feel belonging to groups as well as individuals who are aware of what is going on at workplace. They need the necessary information to complete their tasks as well as make decisions concerning their work. That is what my employer does, and this keeps motivating me to work well enjoying my tasks. Thus, it leads to the excellent performance of the company. This is always achieved through creating meetings in regard to wo rkers’ management to update the employees regarding the organization information that may affect the work carried out. Furthermore, the manager ensures me that he stops by the workers that are affected by a transformation to provide more support. In addition, before any change takes place, there is always enough and clear information provided to the staff for clarity purposes. This motivates workers including me because it makes us feel appreciated and important in the organization.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Additionally, the organizational manager implements his motivational strategy through the provision of financial rewards depending on my performance. Although productivity is linked to workshop floor erroneously, as indicated in many firms, the sale of the total output of the company is the determinant of the profits of the organization. This, therefore, imp lies that in case employees are not offered the right resources at the right place and time, their productivity will suffer not because of their mistakes. Thus, managers take a significant part in the productivity of employees and team. Managers exist to ensure the productivity of the company; in case personally, the manager fail to perform his/her task, he/she may be viewed as nonproductive. The reason for this is that the employee in question is not directly linked to productivity of the firm but has other duties that involve integrating teams in the process of production. Therefore, a manager can increase productivity indirectly by aiding to produce more. In such a case, financial motivation plays a significant role. Due to my manager successfully performing his duties, I get motivated because I know the more I work, and the higher the productivity, the more I get compensated financially, emotionally, and socially. Works Cited Robbins, Stephen and Timothy Agnatius. Essentials of organizational behavior. New York: Routledge, 2010. Print. This essay on Management Issues: How to Motivate Employees? was written and submitted by user Carolina Glover to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Euthanasia Opposite Side Essays

Euthanasia Opposite Side Essays Euthanasia Opposite Side Essay Euthanasia Opposite Side Essay Euthanasia is a comparatively huffy capable and everyone has their ain sentiment on it. For me. I am pro-euthanasia and I believe that an individual’s right to autonomy and freedom of pick. mercy killing should be legalized in all the provinces. It is merely just to give person that right because decease is a private affair and should non be controlled by others. If a individual autonomously chooses to stop his or her life or have person else help them in making so. it should be allowed. One should be free to make so every bit long as no injury is done to others. Moreland goes further and gives an statement covering with liberty saying Since biological life is non the existent. moral issue. so life is non per se valuable or sacred merely because it is human life. He goes on stating that the more of import facet would be biological life. which deals with liberty ( Moreland ) . There are many people who are stuck in infirmary beds for months. even old ages. wired with tubings unable to travel from where they lay. They easy die in a long painful decease unable to make anything. while household members watch in torment as their loved one withers off. What an undignified manner to decease. a slow painful decease. excessively sad to watch. We can forestall this if mercy killing was in topographic point. Euthanasia can rapidly and humanely stop a p atients enduring leting them to decease with self-respect ( Euthanasia ) . Not merely does this aid patients decease a more painless decease. it besides can assist shorten the heartache and agony or the patients loved 1s. Illness can take away the ability to do picks go forthing people with no quality of life. Euthanasia allows that individual to take back the control in make up ones minding whether to populate or to decease ( White ) . A different manner to see it is to compare it to our animate beings. Most people would hold their pets put down if they were enduring. It would be intolerable to watch your favored easy die. instead than holding a speedy decease. Why can’t the same thing happen with worlds? It is about similar animate beings get a particular intervention compared to us. The statement of clemency is when a individual is allowed to end his or her life in an act of kindness ( Moreland ) . Is it morally incorrect to kill person who is terminally sick? I will give you another scenario to believe about. A patient has disseminated malignant neoplastic disease. can non travel in his bed for hurting. can non eat because of sickness and has trouble take a breathing because of the restrict ive consequence of a big measure of intra-abdominal fluid ( Gillett 62 ) . If the adult male is imploring to be killed. would you non? The statement of clemency would turn out that this is barbarous and inhumane. A quiet painless manner to decease from a fatal injection is better than being in hurting from an affliction. besides known as the aureate regulation ( Moreland ) . Freedom of pick is every bit American as the bald bird of Jove but yet do we all truly have that type of freedom? My reply is a large no. Merely three provinces have euthanasia in topographic point and they are Oregon. Washington. and Montana. But even in these three provinces it was about impossible to be granted for mercy killing. The demands that had to be satisfied before a petition could be granted were so steep that merely 2 people a month used this to stop their lives ( Pro Euthanasia Arguments ) . Some of these conditions included: patient must be terminally sick with a life anticipation of less than six months. both physicians must corroborate that the patient is capable of doing this determination. both physicians must corroborate that the patient does non hold medical status that impairs their judgement. and patient must self-administer the deadly medicine ( Pro Euthanasia Arguments ) . Is modulating euthanasia impossible? I must acknowledge it would be really hard but it is so possible. Again take a expression at the three provinces that have euthanasia. Physical assisted self-destruction is normally what would go on to patients in infirmaries if they can non make it on their ain. A physician or nurse would shoot the patient with a deadly dosage doing them to decease or some type of medicine ( Bourdeau ) . The terminally ailment will acquire the rights they want and more control of their fate. Euthanasia promotes the best involvements of everyone concerned and violates no one’s rights ( Moreland ) . The last thing I wanted to speak about was that mercy killing does liberate up scarce resources in the infirmary ( Pro Euthanasia Arguments ) . Keeping loved 1s alive in infirmaries uses up a batch of money every bit good as resources the infirmary has to supply. We can direct the equipment to person else who has a better opportunity of populating instead than a terminally sick patient who will be stuck in the infirmary. Euthanasia should be morally accepted and legalized in all provinces because of the freedom of pick that Americans have. The hurting and agony patients go through coupled with their loved 1s seeing them in a black mode can all be stopped if mercy killing is passed. Regulating mercy killing should non be excessively much of a challenge every bit good since we do hold a few provinces that already hold it. The scarce resources that are used to maintain the terminally sick hardly alive can be used to assist assistance others live a better life style. In general mercy killing should be looked at as a right we all have sing we are to the full independent. If one has the right to life does one non hold the right to decease? Plants Cited Bourdreau. Donald. MD. Physician-Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia. The Permanente Journal. N. p. . Fall 2011. Web. 15 Nov. 2012. lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. thepermanentejournal. org/issues/2011/fall/50-commentary/4186-physician-assisted-euthanasia. hypertext markup language gt ; . Euthanasia. Rsrevision. N. p. . 2011. Web. 15 Nov. 2012. lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. rsrevision. com/GCSE/christian_perspectives/life/euthanasia/for. htm gt ; . Gillett. Grant. Euthanasia. Leting Die and the Pause. JSTOR. N. p. . June 1988. Web. 16 Nov. 2012. lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. jstor. org/stable/27716689? seq=6 gt ; . Moreland. J. P. Euthanasia Arguments. CRI Euthanasia Arguments Comments. N. p. . 17 Apr. 2009. Web. 16 Nov. 2012. lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. equip. org/articles/euthanasia-arguments/ gt ; . Pro-Euthanasia Arguments. BBC News. BBC. n. d. Web. 15 Nov. 2012. lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. bbc. co. u k/ethics/euthanasia/infavour/infavour_1. shtml gt ; . Smith. Candance. Physician-Assisted Suicide: A Subject of Turning Importance. The Society Pages. N. p. . 31 July 2012. Web. 15 Nov. 2012. lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //thesocietypages. org/sociologylens/2012/07/31/physician-assisted-suicide-a-topic-of-growing-importance/ gt ; . White. Hilary. British Medical Journal Campaigns for Legalized Euthanasia. LifeSiteNews. N. p. . 18 June 2012. Web. 16 Nov. 2012. lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. lifesitenews. com/news/british-medical-journal-campaigns-for-legalized-euthanasia gt ; .

Middle Ages Weddings and Hygiene

Middle Ages Weddings and Hygiene A popular email hoax has spread all sorts of misinformation about the Middle Ages and The Bad Old Days. Here we address medieval weddings and bride hygiene. From the Hoax Most people got married in June because they took their yearly bath in May and still smelled pretty good by June. However, they were starting to smell so brides carried a bouquet of flowers to hide the body odor. Hence the custom today of carrying a bouquet when getting married. The Facts In the agricultural communities of medieval England, the most popular months for weddings were January, November, and October,1 when the harvest was past and the time for planting had not yet arrived. Late autumn and winter were also when animals were usually slaughtered for food, so freshly butchered beef, pork, mutton, and similar meats would be available for the wedding feast, which often coincided with annual festivals. Summer weddings, which might also coincide with annual festivals, enjoyed some popularity, as well. June was indeed a good time to take advantage of good weather and the arrival of new crops for a wedding festival, as well as fresh flowers for the ceremony and celebrations. The use of flowers in wedding ceremonies goes back to ancient times.2 Depending on the culture, flowers have numerous symbolic meanings, some of the most significant being loyalty, purity, and love. In the late fifteenth century, roses were popular in medieval Europe for their connection to romantic love and were used in many ceremonies, including weddings. As for yearly baths, the idea that medieval people rarely bathed is a ​persistent but false one. Most people washed on a regular basis. Going without washing was considered a penance even in the early Middle Ages. Soap, possibly invented by the Gauls sometime before Christ, was in widespread use throughout Europe by the end of the ninth century and made its first appearance in cake form in the twelfth century. Public bathhouses were not uncommon, although their ostensible purpose was often secondary to their clandestine use by prostitutes.3 In short, there were numerous opportunities for medieval people to cleanse their bodies. Thus, the prospect of going a full month without washing, and then appearing at her wedding with a bouquet of flowers to hide her stench, is not something a medieval bride was likely to consider any more than a modern bride would. Notes Hanawalt, Barbara, The Ties that Bound: Peasant Families in Medieval England (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 176.garland  Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica [Accessed April 9, 2002; verified June 26, 2015.]Rossiaud, Jacques, and Cochrane, Lydia G. (translator), Medieval Prostitution (Basil Blackwell Ltd., 1988), p. 6.

Intimate Correlation of Media Art and Manufacturing Industry Dissertation - 1

Intimate Correlation of Media Art and Manufacturing Industry - Dissertation Example Manufacturers need to cater to the changing needs of their consumers in order for them to continue with their operations. They need to think of new innovations for their products for them to be globally competitive and for others not to outweigh what they have. It should not be a wonder why manufacturers with this line of thinking have owned the top positions for the best manufacturers in the world. Apple’s Legacy Apple for instance, has come a very long way in producing items that were really suitable for the different tastes of people. As their products continue to innovate, their ability to capture the hearts of the consumers also continue. With this, manufacturers within the same line of business such as Samsung are also following Apple’s steps in innovating their products and giving in to what the customers want. They always come up with ideas that would attend to the latest craze regarding the different gadgets, always leaving their consumers thirsty for more. Whi le it is enough to credit these manufacturers for their ability to innovate and think of new ways to sell their products, it cannot be denied that media art has also affected the success of these manufacturers very effectively. Anyone would be positive in saying that media art can really push consumers to purchase the products that they contain. Advertisements always make a huge impact to customers and it’s the easiest form of influence so that consumers can be attracted to the products. Apple has been in the top of Wall Street for the past years now, since its introduction of the Macintosh personal computers and the portable music players known as iPod. Nowhere in the world can you see anyone who owns any of these gadgets. The way on how these products attained success is a great illustration on how media art and innovation can really be a factor to the manufacturer’s success. Even the littlest image on a magazine, or a small advertisement in a billboards and everythi ng else, if it contains the most important feature that a product has, that would be a plus factor to the manufacturer’s ability to sell. Even as Apple continue to succeed, its owner, Steve Jobs overlooked the fact that he has competitors around. Koontz and Weihrich (2008, pp.331-333) shared what happened between Apple and Windows. Gates has offered Jobs to make the personalized software that he wants, but as soon as Gates took a hold of the Apple’s software, he took advantage of it, and thus, the birth of Microsoft Windows. This only proves that having the most efficient software and resources is not the only key to success in every company. There will always be those who will compete in order to get to the highest position. Microsoft was then successful in pirating Apple’s idea, but the success that the latter has made can still be apprehended for. According to Lussier and Achua (2010, pp.24-25), Apple’s success comes from trying to make things that wou ld be loved by everyone. There is no doubt at this point that everyone loves their products. Together with their brilliant minds, innovation and resourcefulness, media art can always be behind everything that they make. As stated earlier, the easiest way to reach people nowadays and to sell products is through advertising. Media art is a very effective tool in exposing your products in a very simple way. For as long as you know the details to include in the

Why do som popl consistntly inspir othrs to follow thir ld Essay

Why do som popl consistntly inspir othrs to follow thir ld - Essay Example Followrs should b willing to follow you bcus of th positiv influnc tht you hv on popl s good ldr. To b n ffctiv ldr, on nds to continully dvlop onslf. High qulity ldrship ntils mpowring othrs to xrcis thir hug potntil for th bnfit of th orgnistion or th tm. Followrs hv to trust you s ldr nd trust hs to b rnd from on's ctions. On cnnot hop to b n xcptionl ldr unlss on is slf-disciplind. Ldrship strts with bing bl to ld yourslf bfor on cn ld othrs. John Mxwll hs bn lrning nd tching ldrship throughout his ntir crr s Wslyn pstor nd sminr spkr. H livs nd brths ldrship. nd in this book h hs distilld th rt of ldrship. Wll, not so simpl, myb, but t lst undrstndbl. Mny popl ttin positions of ldrship in th orgnistions, community nd othr sphrs of lif but with no guidnc of wht good ldrship ntils. John Mxwll did good job of writing smll book pckd with usful guidnc on how to b n ffctiv ldr. H dividd th book into thr prts. Th first prt dscribs how on cn dvlop s ldr, whilst th scond prt xplins th trits of ldr nd th lst prt is on th impct tht ldr cn hv on popl. Mxwll stts tht h cn quickly tll who th rl ldr/influncr in group is, bcus whn this prson spks, vryon t th tbl listns, nods, nd bgins to xprss ssnt. Mxwll lrnd this t his first church whr h discovrd th rl ldr ws Clud, vn though Clud wsn't vn th church modrtor. Mxwll thn lrnd to influnc Clud nd lt Clud ld th othrs. You cn s how prcticl this kind of book could b. W bumbl round for much of our livs, nd stumbl ovr ths "lws," trying to lrn to b ldrs, oftn not undrstnding wht wnt wrong. With som clr dirction -- nd tht's wht Mxwll provids -- you'll b bl to grow mor quickly s ldr. Mxwll ddrsss wht shps prson's ttitud nd whthr or not ttitud cn b chngd. H ddrsss th common fling of filur nd shows how to ovrcom obstcls. Undrstnding succss s journy rthr thn dstintion, h xplins, is th ky to good ldrship. H concluds ttitud 101 with prcticl wys rdrs cn tk thir ttitud to th nxt lvl. s Dr. Mxwll sys, succss is: "Knowing your purpos in lif, Growing to rch your mximum potntil, Sowing sds tht bnfit othrs." Th book combins ll of th lmnts you'v probbly com to lik bout his books on ldrship, tmwork, thinking nd purposful living. Sing it ll togthr in brif form mks th mssg clrr somhow. His pigrms r wondrful. Hr's nothr of my fvorits for hlping othrs form good ttituds: "Vlu popl. Pris fforts. Rwrd prformnc." For yrs, Mxwll hs bn clld on by mg-corportions to tch ldrship to thir xcutivs, so this nd som of his mor rcnt books r dsignd to b rd with profit by both Christin nd businss udincs. I'v rd lot in th fild of ldrship, nd in my opinion, Mxwll is tops. H's not only humorous nd sy-to-rd, his nlysis of th ssntils of ldrship is brillint. If you'r church ldr, you'll wnt to rd this, nd thn buy copy for your pstor t Christms. If you'r pstor, this is book to bsorb nd thn circult mong your ly ldrs to ris thir lvl of ldrship. This will lso b n pprcitd gift to businss xcutiv. "Grt ldrs s th nd, siz th opportunity, nd srv without xpcting nything in rturn," Dr. Mxwll writs. In ssnc tht cpturs th thm of this wll-writtn work. t th hrt of ldrship is th dsir to srv othr popl. Prcticl mttrs such s focusing on rsults nd living disciplind lif r includd

Essay --

One job the requires algebra is an Animator. Animators have to draw all kinds of pictures and cartoons and it requires them to use linear algebra for every movement a character or object may make. Algebra also helps create special effects to make the images shine and sparkle. The requirements you must have to do this type of job is that of course you have to have talent, some type of degree in animation, and be pretty decent in math. Animators make around $47,000 a year. Another job that requires algebra would be an accountant. Accountants have to use algebraic equations and lots of graphs. The math is used to make sure things balance and that everything is correct. Using algebra when accounting is very important because it tells you or the person you're helping, know how much they can spend. Requirements are is that you must have a degree in accounting, must have all credits and good grades (pretty much just pass), you must pass the CPA and ethics exam, and have your license. Accountants make around $60,000 a year. A geologist is another job that algebra is required in. They us...

The Unification Of Germany And Italy History Essay

The fusion of both Germany and Italy changed each state everlastingly. The impact for both the fusion of Germany and Italy created a forceful mentality for independency, economic growing, and a strong patriotism. However, to each its ain can be a statement here, as the fusions besides brought bloody war, separation, and commanding political relations. This essay will compare and contrast the fusion of Germany and the fusion of Italy. War is war. It is a natural force, it can unify some, and divide others, and the fusion of both Germany and Italy are to be understood with the same frame of idea for this essay. The similarities for Germany and Italy are many, but here I will name the points that are most recognizable from an academic position. Chiefly it is of import to notate that both unification procedures required the work and order of a confident leader. Even though the fusion of Italy required a changed in leading, the procedure led to the same end. Where Germany had, Bismarck, Italy had di Cavor. Bismarck was known as the â€Å" Bloody Iron. † His ideas of fusion were of pure endurance. He required barbarous force to derive integrity for Germany. Italy ‘s leading thought with a more political mentality. Camilo di Cavor ( the kingsmen that eventually took Italy all the manner into fusion ) relied more on blessing from political groups and out of economic despair. In add-on, Italy had a larger battle due to the extent of the current disorganisation and separation of her boundary lines. There were at least 39 single bordering locations to unify with what subsequently became the capital of Italy, Rome. In add-on, both fusions had a end of unifying their broken state and supplying a centralised authorities regulation. However, being that the logical thinking is considered to include economic agencies in both fusions ; the importance in the economic base for Italy was far more of import and necessary. Italy had faced bankruptcy and a great depression from all of the anterior promises from anterior leaders. This was Italy ‘s chief thrust, endurance after multiple attempts and complete old failure. The rudimentss of each state and their push for fusion were that multiple districts desired the integrity of so holding control and running one united state or authorities. The demands for the people were presented different in the narrative of the fusions, but the demands for a authorities do look of import, if non more of import, to the fusion procedure. Germany had a program and struck while the Fe was hot, where Italy had to take some major falls before they were able to unify as one. Unlike other wars, the fusions of both Germany and Italy gained support from all societal categories. The fusion ‘s intent for both of the states led to a patriotism to let each state excessively so thrive. The societal populations of both states shared the same demands, but for different commanding factors. Austria ruled Northern Italy, and the Catholic Church controlled cardinal Italy. Germany was nowhere nigh every bit discombobulated as Italy, yet had the same desire of centralisation control in authorities and policy. Equally far as existent procedure of fusion, merely put, Germany ‘s fusion procedure did differ in ways from the fusion of Italy. Where Italy was under a pollex of foreign control, Germany was independent. Some of the foreign controls for Italy included Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Pope, the Duchies of Spoleto and the land of Two Siciles. Germany entered fusion with a major war with France and subsequently established universe power, but this was through denial of advice from multiple countries, including the Pope! Their consistent disposition led to a speedy triumph. Another signifier of difference between both states ‘ fusion is the existent procedure required to derive each of their fusions. Germany won their unification rapidly and swift, merely seven hebdomads, where Italy was a bloody conflict for their lone authorities for multiple old ages and multiple leaders. Italy took old ages longer along with a batch of leader and male monarch restructuring excessively eventually derive the same success as Germany. Even though each state had similar aims, their thoughts of the demand to unite did differ somewhat. Germany wanted to organize a â€Å" 3rd Germany † in which Germany excluded from Austria and Prussia. Germany besides gained their fusion through direct and unfastened struggle. On the reverse, Italy ‘s objected was to divide themselves from France in hope of a lone authorities. There were enormous up ‘s and down ‘s for Italy and her people, and unification fit the demand at the clip. Looking at the leaders for each of the fusions, Italy faced failure through Napoleon after merely 100 yearss into war. He was subsequently exiled and succeeded by Louis IVIII, this led to the public violences of the people and the non-support due a direct failure that subsequently led to a belly-up Italy. Later, enters Italy ‘s premier curate of the land Savoy, Camilo di Cavor. He launches war and uses diplomatic negotiations and war to drive power. He is better known as the Brain. Cavour is the leader that eventually led Italy ( after a few failed efforts ) to fusion. The procedure was long and hard, but the wages was deserving Italy ‘s cicatrixs. Germany ‘s leader is merely one adult male, Otto Von Bismarck. In 1862, Bismarck was appointed the King of Prussia. Bismarck used policy of Realpolitik to regulate. Bismarck held small or no idea to single moralss, over all ethical motives, or current legalities. Bismarck ‘s end was to beef up military and the industrialized the nucleus of Germany and Germany ‘s people. His ideas of fusion were unite German provinces under one ruleaˆÂ ¦simply stated, non Austrian, but Prussian regulation! Quickly, the Germans defeated the Gallic and at the terminal of the war, all of the German provinces joined with Prussia to unify as one German State. The chauvinistic feeling was on the rise during the clip that Bismarck and Cavor controlled the states of Germany and Italy. Both leaders opted to work that experiencing through war. Through Treaties, confederations were formed for Germany, but it is through failure so success that confederations were formed for Italy. Both fusions served similar intents and yet different concluding. As I stated in the beginning of this essay, the impact for both the fusion of Germany and Italy created a forceful mentality for independency, economic growing, and a strong patriotism. The terminal wages for both Germany and Italy remain the same, remarkable patriotism through combined integrity.

The Actions Of Adolf Hitler And His Nazi Army - 1205 Words

Margaux McCalla Miss Roth H English Pd. 4 21 March 2017 Mindset to Massacre The actions of Adolf Hitler and his Nazi army, along with many willing European citizens, of killing some six-million Jews is known as the Holocaust. In Greek â€Å"Holocaust† means â€Å"whole- burnt†, sometimes it is referred to as the â€Å"Shoah† which is â€Å"catastrophe† in Hebrew (Hall n.p.). Nazi Germany and the territories it took over treated Jews like animals and did awful things to them. It is very hard to understand how an event like this could even happen and why someone would involve himself in this enormous, racist group and eventually genocide. It is important to know what caused the Holocaust in order for the world to prevent a similar event, to familiarize the†¦show more content†¦Preventing a disaster like this requires spotting racism and inequality toward specific ethnics groups early before people in government power can influence people into legitimately harming society. When learning about the Holocaus t and the causes for it, it is critical to know the context and background of the world at that time. January 30, 1933 was the day that Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor. From that point on the racism and inequality for Jews in europe grew and grew (Ghostly n.p.). Although direct contact and government action toward toward dispensing Jews was very new, Jews had felt out of place and isolated for a long time. The hatred of the Jewish population dates all the way back to the sixteenth century (Gabriel n.p.). In Martin Gilbert’s book, â€Å"The Jewish Tragedy†, he quotes Martin Luther from 1543 saying â€Å"their synagogues should be set on fire, and whatever does not burn up should be covered or spread over with dirt so that no one may ever be able to see a cinder or a stone of it† (19). Martin Luther was not an extremist for this time either. Much of humanity thought of the Jews this way (Gilbert 19). People in Europe passed down hatred and unjust stories ab out Jews in their families and communities for years. Furthermore, the jews have always had a difficult time with having steady ownership of their homeland (â€Å"Project Aladin† n.p.). All through history Israel has repeatedly been taken over by middle eastern nations untilShow MoreRelatedAdolf Hitler And The Barbaric Acts Of Prejudice1134 Words   |  5 PagesAdolf Hitler is most commonly known for the unforgivable acts of prejudice he committed throughout the course of his life. His abysmal actions left a scar on the world that could never be healed. However, Hitler possessed extreme intelligence and vocational skills. Although innovative and bright, he became corrupt as he turned against non-Aryans. His dream of pursuing his desire to be an artist slowly drifted from his mind as visions of a pure bred mother Germany came into focus. Hitler’s significantRead More Adolf Hitler Essay1212 Words   |  5 Pages Adolf Hitler On April 20, 1889, the world was changed forever when Adolf Hitler was born to Alois and Klara Hitler in a little town named Braunau-am-Inn, Austria. Alois worked as a customs officer on the border crossing near their hometown. Adolf was the third born in his family, but first to survive. Later would come Edmund, who would live to the age of six, and Paula who would live to out survive Adolf himself. With a poor record in school, Adolf Hitler dropped out with ambitions of becomingRead MoreHow Hitler Started World War II627 Words   |  3 PagesAlthough Hitler’s motives were more clear towards the end of World War II, Adolf did tackle the unemployment and stimulate Germany’s failing economy. Once Hitler became Chancellor of Germany on January 30th, 1933 The economic policy for Hitler’s regime involved large scale borrowing for public expenditures which created railroads, canals, and the Autobahnen or the German highway network. The result of Hitler’s econo mic policy was more effective against unemployment than any other country. By lateRead MoreAdolf Hitler and His Regime Essay1481 Words   |  6 PagesAdolf Hitler and His Regime Adolf Hitler and his regime had a devastating effect on the twentieth century. Hitler’s third Reich (1933-1934) was supposed to last for 1000 years but only lasted twelve. This evil man legalised the destruction of an entire race of people. He plunged â€Å"the world into one of the bloodiest and most destructive wars in history.† (Shirer, 1961) Hitler was a genius but an evil genius. He had the ability to convince millions of German’s of his ideas to extent theRead More Motives of Adolf Hitler in Audens Epitaph on a Tyrant and September 1, 1939761 Words   |  4 Pages Adolf Hitler was a very powerful man, and had a disturbing vision of how the world should be. W.H. Auden was interested in Adolf Hitler, and this interest can be seen in Auden’s poetry. September 1, 1939 and Epitaph on a Tyrant are two poems in which Auden scrutinizes Hitler’s actions. Auden uses symbolism in these two poems to illustrate the different aspects of Hitler’s life and actions. To begin with, Epitaph on a Tyrant personified Hitler’s obsession with â€Å"perfection of a kind.† The obsessionRead MoreAdolf Hitler And The Holocaust1078 Words   |  5 Pages Adolf Hitler played a major role in WWII. Hitler was anti-Semitic. Anti-Semitic is to be against Jews. Hitler’s perspective of perfection was a blue-eyed, blonde-haired white person; most Jews did not fit this description. This view is what caused the Holocaust. The Holocaust was a period of time in which many Jews were killed in camps. He also believed that he could bring Germany to greatness once again. Because of Adolf Hitler’s actions and beliefs, he was an important figure inRead More1939- 1945 Were Possibly The Worst Years In American History.807 Words   |  4 Pagesoccurring. Adolf Hitler was in complete control. He even went outside the battle grounds to wreck havoc. He went to Babi Yar...the last place where Jews could hide. Babi Yar is located in Kiev, Ukraine. During World War II, a massacre took place in the small town, killing more than 1,000 Jews. The Nazis attacked them on September 29, 1943. Afterwards, the war continued to rage, only to end in 1945. During World War II, Adolf Hitler rose to fame as the harsh dictator of Germany. Hitler would thenRead MoreThe Rise of the Nazi Party1059 Words   |  5 PagesThe Nazis and their rise to power comprised many steps along the way. With the help of Adolf Hitler’s mind they came to power with their political and economic strategies. Outlining the beginning of how Hitler and his party slowly gained power and took over Germany as each of his idea and his supporters helped him to rise. Hitler consequently congregated supporters of the Nazi party to make it stronger. Before the idea of legally taking over the political and economic of Germany, he planned to takeRead MoreAdolf Hitler: Impacts and Influences Essay1292 Words   |  6 PagesAdolf Hitler was born on April 20, 1889 in Austria where he was baptized into the Catholic church. He was the son of an Austrian customs official, and dropped out of high school at age sixteen. As a young man, Hitler dreamed of being an artist. He ap plied to the Vienna Academy of the Arts twice and was rejected both times. He made a meager living by painting and selling postcards in Linz, Vienna, and Munich. Hitler affected Germany greatly because of his political offices. He founded the Nazi partyRead More Hitlers Rise To Power Essay1709 Words   |  7 Pagesmustache.1 Adolf Hitler was a failed artist who rose to rule Germany as a dictator from 1933-1945. Due to his racial hatred, approximately eleven million people were killed; six million of who were Jews ordered into concentration camps. What type of political climate would enable racial hatred to overtake a country as demonstrated by Hitler’s rise to power? This can be broken down into three different questions. First, how did his childhood and young adulthood affect his actions as an adult? Second

The Physics of a Diesel Engine Essay - 921 Words

The Physics of a Diesel Engine The world we live in is surrounded by diesel engines. They are on the freeways, railways, airways, and are one of the leading electricity producers in the world. They are also becoming more popular in automobiles. These engines are efficient and reliable and they are getting very sophisticated. However, the physics behind these engines has not changed. By way of definition, courtesy of Diesel Engine Engineering: [a] diesel engine is an internal combustion engine in which the chemical energy of fuel is transformed into thermal energy of the cylinder charge, in consequence of the self-ignition and combustion of fuel in the engine cylinder after compression of the air charge in the cylinder (p1†¦show more content†¦The piston then travels down pulling in fresh air, (third stroke), after the piston bottoms again it travels up compressing the fresh air, (fourth stroke). The fuel is then injected and one cycle is completed in 720 degrees or two full rotations of the crankshaft. The disadvantage of two-stroke engines is their dependency on a blower to force air into the chamber and their inefficiency. A four-stroke engine does not have an expansion stroke every 360 degrees but it is more efficient because it has more time to completely burn the fuel injected into the cylinder. There are mechanical and fundamental differences between the two-stroke and four-stroke engines but the physics remain the same. They both rely upon the compressed air to ignite the pressurized fuel and the resulting expansion for their power. At first glance it may look like the explosion in the chamber does the work but upon further inspection you can see the physics involved. There are two questions I would like to address. The first question is what is the physics behind the compressed air raising the temperature upwards of 900 degrees. The second question is what is the physics behind the rapid expansion of the ignited air fuel mixture. The physics behind the temperature increase of compressed air begins with a fresh charge of air. The air fills the combustion chamber when the cylinder is at bottom dead center. As theShow MoreRelatedThe Stroke Combustion Cycle ( Ice ) Revolutionized The Way The Man Think And Moves1352 Words   |  6 PagesInternal Combustion Engines (ICE) revolutionized the way the Man think and Moves. Internal Combustion Engines are also significantly more efficient than the well-known steam engine. Today it has better power than electric batteries and motors, and offers similar overall efficiency. Small, lightweight ICE made personal transportation possible. It transformed how we built cities and did business. Engines are so important for the advancement on any society, nowadays without engines it will be much harderRead MoreOccupational Medicine And Occupational Health1571 Words   |  7 Pagesindustrial hygienists is to make opinions to correct, reduce, or eliminate workplace hazards in the ar eas of chemical, biological, or physical exposure. Professional industrial hygienists are required to be educated in chemistry, biology, engineering, physics, or specifically in industrial hygiene in order to be able to comply with monitoring and controlling the use of toxic and hazardous substances. Some of the tools used in industrial hygiene are respirators and medical surveillance necessary to approachRead MoreWhat Does Thermodynamics Affect The World?1458 Words   |  6 Pagesaround us. This is very important because thermodynamics is understanding heat, and without heat, humans would not be able to survive. Something more familiar to you, like Newton Laws of Physics, takes a look at the big picture of physical motion and how it effects the world around us. â€Å"Thermodynamics is a branch of physics which deals with the energy and work of a system.† Without the knowledge of thermodynamics, everyday life would be much different. Thermodynamics were used to designed and manufacturedRead MoreUse Of Diesohol As A Substitute For Diesel1670 Words   |  7 PagesIn our world today diesel engines have become a substantial part of the society, being used in buses, trucks, locomotives, tractors, and so on. Scientist has been seeking ways of improving the efficiency of diesel engines by developing and testing alternative fuels. Recent studies explore the use of diesohol as a substitute to diesel. Diesohol are classified as â€Å"a mixture of diesel fuel and anhydrous alcohol blended using a chemical emulsifier,† (Environmental Protection Agency, 2003).However a majorRead MoreThe Use Of Port Injection Gasoline With Direct Injection Diesel Fuel2774 Words   |  12 Pagestremendous potential to be used in CI engines effectively based on the RCCI concept. Operating a CI engine in the RCCI mode has become possible as the result of new fuel system technology and engine controls. The high octane number fuel used in the literature is often gasoline or ethanol. The U.S. Department of Energy has devoted significant resources to its national laboratories to investigate the practical applications of port-injection gasoline with direct-injection diesel fuel, as seen in recent publicationsRead MoreIs Mechanical Engineering Beng At Liverpool John Moores University?1753 Words   |  8 PagesLJMU with University of Liverpool. Lastly, it presents an argument in thermodynamics, a module taught at the first year of Liverpool John Moores University Mechanical Engineering BEng program, which is a comparison between the efficiency of diesel and petrol engines. A:- A bachelor degree of Mechanical Engineering is my selected major to study at Liverpool John Moores University. LJMU is one of the leading school in teaching a practical degree of Mechanical Engineering. This degree provides many jobRead MoreThe Invention Of The Nineteenth Century Essay1890 Words   |  8 Pageswhether it is a mechanical device or graphics, literature, or music, is an invention. The eighteenth, nineteenth and the twentieth centuries were met with innumerable of new inventions, technical breakthroughs, and innovations. Steam locomotive, diesel engine and the internet were two of the technological innovations that revolutionized societies in the nineteenth and twentieth century. Invented in England in 1814, Steam locomotive was one of the technological inventions that revolutionized the worldRead MoreBiofuels2310 Words   |  10 Pagesresources, if we focus it on producing vegetable oil using the land resources, we will greatly reduce the demand for petroleum products. .. Our engine is extremely VERSATILE, being able to run on diesel, bio-diesels, vegetable oils with very little change in power and efficiency. This will diversify the kind of fuels that can run a diesel engine and reduce the dependence on fossil fuels. †¢ ECO-FRIENDLY .. No additional Carbon Oxides are emitted into the atmosphere. .. This is because onlyRead MorePhysics for Industries1918 Words   |  8 PagesINTRODUCTION Physics attempts to describe the fundamental nature of the universe and how it works, always striving for the simplest explanations common to the most diverse behaviour. For example, physics explains why rainbows have colours, what keeps a satellite in orbit, and what atoms and nuclei are made of. The goal of physics is to explain as many things as possible using as few laws as possible, revealing nature s underlying simplicity and beauty. Physics has been applied in many industrialRead MoreApplications of Physics For Different Industries Essays1950 Words   |  8 PagesINTRODUCTION Physics attempts to describe the fundamental nature of the universe and how it works, always striving for the simplest explanations common to the most diverse behaviour. For example, physics explains why rainbows have colours, what keeps a satellite in orbit, and what atoms and nuclei are made of. The goal of physics is to explain as many things as possible using as few laws as possible, revealing natures underlying simplicity and beauty. Physics has been applied in many industrial

The Features Of A Relational Database - 1585 Words

P1 - Explain the features of a relational database. This is to be shown as a report or presentation and must discuss the following. †¢ Features: entities; attributes; relationships; †¢ Entities: primary keys, foreign keys; referential integrity; attributes; †¢ Attributes: field properties e.g. data types, size, validation rules †¢ Relationships: one-to-many; one-to-one; many-to-many Relational database – This is a database that contains more than one table of which are linked using key fields. An example could be a library database which could have the ability to have 3 tables. To further this example one table could be Customers so when somebody joins the library a record is generated with their details on such as their name, address†¦show more content†¦You are able to produce restrictions which assures that only acceptable or appropriate data is inputted into the database. Queries – This is what makes the concept of searching for the data you require easily. Queries can be used to obtain a piece of data which can be defined by the user. All of the features above techniques on how a database can receive, store, search and send all types of data to a different database Data Types Databases always keep data as it stores it making the data more efficient and all the different types of data are generally categorised as a specific data type. There is 5 main types of data such as Boolean, date/time, currency Numerical and text. Boolean – This is when data is limited to only 2 different choices. An example is True/False Yes/No Male/Female Date/Time – This kind of data limits you to only being able to use numbers from 1 – 31 for the number of days in the month and 1 – 12 for the number of the month then it examines if the date in fact exists/. There is three different formats for this type of data such as long, medium and short. Long time – 19:25:00 Medium Time – 07:25PM Short time – 19.25 Long date – 30 April 2014 Medium date 30-Apr-14 Short date – 30/04/14 Currency – This type of data is automatically changes the data you enter to possess a  £ in front of it and 2 decimal places. An example of this is  £5.05 $6.99 Numerical – This is whatShow MoreRelatedFeatures Of A Relational Database2318 Words   |  10 Pages Features of a relational database Primary keys: The main feature of a relation database would be the primary key. It is a unique identifier set to each and every record that travels across different tables in relationships. An example of a primary key is a Social Security number. The primary keys job is to make each record unique and it lets data to be kept in more than one table. Each table within a relational database will have a field for the primary key. Read MoreThe Features Of A Relational Database1406 Words   |  6 PagesP1 Explain the features of a relational database. 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Ulrich Beck Free Essays

string(39) " matter how diverse and contradictory\." Sociology http://soc. sagepub. com Beck’s Sociology of Risk: A Critical Assessment Anthony Elliott Sociology 2002; 36; 293 DOI: 10. We will write a custom essay sample on Ulrich Beck or any similar topic only for you Order Now 1177/0038038502036002004 The online version of this article can be found at: http://soc. sagepub. com/cgi/content/abstract/36/2/293 Published by: http://www. sagepublications. com On behalf of: British Sociological Association Additional services and information for Sociology can be found at: Email Alerts: http://soc. sagepub. com/cgi/alerts Subscriptions: http://soc. sagepub. com/subscriptions Reprints: http://www. agepub. com/journalsReprints. nav Permissions: http://www. sagepub. com/journalsPermissions. nav Citations (this article cites 6 articles hosted on the SAGE Journals Online and HighWire Press platforms): http://soc. sagepub. com/cgi/content/refs/36/2/293 Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. com by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 022761 Elliott 13/5/2002 9:49 am Page 293 Risk Society Sociology Copyright  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd ® Volume 36(2): 293–315 [0038-0385(200205)36:2;293–315;022761] SAGE Publications London,Thousand Oaks, New Delhi Beck’s Sociology of Risk: A Critical Assessment s Anthony Elliott University of the West of England AB ST RAC T The German sociologist Ulrich Beck has elaborated a highly original formulation of the theory of risk and re? exive modernization, a formulation that has had a signi? cant impact upon recent sociological theorizing and research. This article examines Beck’s sociology of risk in the context of his broader social theory of re? xivity, advanced modernization and individualization. The article argues that Beck’s work is constrained by several sociological weaknesses: namely, a dependence upon objectivistic and instrumental models of the social construction of risk and uncertainty in social relations, and a failure to adequately de? ne the relations between institutional dynamism on the one hand and self-referentiality and critical re? ection on the other. As a contribution to the reformulation and further development of Beck’s approach to sociological theory, the article seeks to uggest other ways in which the link between risk and re? exivity might be pursued. These include a focus upon (1) the intermixing of re? exivity and re? ection in social relations; (2) contemporary ideologies of domination and power; and (3) a dialectical notion of modernity and postmodernization. K E Y WORDS domination / modernity / postmodernity / re? exivity / risk / social theory A s competent re? ective agents, we are aware of the many ways in which a generalized ‘climate of risk’ presses in on our daily activities. In our dayto-day lives, we are sensitive to the cluster of risks that affect our relations with the self, with others, and with the broader culture. We are specialists in carving out ways of coping and managing risk, whether this be through active engagement, resigned acceptance or confused denial. From dietary concerns to 293 Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. com by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 022761 Elliott 294 13/5/2002 Sociology 9:49 am Volume 36 s Page 294 Number 2 s May 2002 prospective stock market gains and losses to polluted air, the contemporary risk climate is one of proliferation, multiplication, specialism, counterfactual guesswork, and, above all, anxiety. Adequate consideration and calculation of risktaking, risk-management and risk-detection can never be fully complete, however, since there are always unforeseen and unintended aspects of risk environments. This is especially true at the level of global hazards, where the array of industrial, technological, chemical and nuclear dangers that confront us grows, and at an alarming rate. Indeed the German sociologist, Ulrich Beck (1996a), de? nes the current situation as that of ‘world risk society’. The rise of risk society, Beck argues, is bound up with the new electronic global economy – a world in which we live on the edge of high technological innovation and scienti? c development, but where no one fully understands the possible global risks and dangers we face. My aim in this article is to explore some of the issues that concern the relation between risk and society by focusing on the work of Beck. A profoundly innovative and imaginative social theorist, Beck has developed powerful analyses of the ways in which the rise of the risk society is transforming social reproduction, nature and ecology, intimate relationships, politics and democracy. 1 It is necessary to state at the outset that I am not seeking in this article to provide a general introduction to Beck’s work as a whole. Rather, I shall offer a short exposition of Beck’s risk society thesis, in conjunction with his analysis of re? exivity and its role in social practices and modern institutions. The econd, more extensive half of the article is then critical and reconstructive in character. I try to identify several questionable social-theoretic assumptions contained in Beck’s risk society thesis, as well as limitations concerning his analysis of re? exivity, social reproduction and the dynamics of modernity. In making this critique, I shall try to point, in a limited and provisional manner, to some of the ways in which I believe that the themes of risk and social re? exivity can be reformulated and, in turn, further developed in contemporary sociological analysis. Outline of the Theory Let me begin by outlining the central planks of Beck’s social theory. These can be divided into three major themes: (1) the risk society thesis; (2) re? exive modernization; and (3) individualization. The Risk Society Thesis From his highly in? uential 1986 volume Risk Society through to Democracy without Enemies (1998) and World Risk Society (1999b), Beck has consistently argued that the notion of risk is becoming increasingly central to our global society. 2 As Beck (1991: 22–3) writes: Downloaded from http://soc. agepub. com by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 022761 Elliott 13/5/2002 9:49 am Page 295 Beck’s sociology of risk Elliott [T]he historically unprecedented possibility, brought about by our own decisions, of the destruction of all life on this planet †¦ distinguishes our epoch not only from the early phase of the Indus trial Revolution but also from all other cultures and social forms, no matter how diverse and contradictory. You read "Ulrich Beck" in category "Papers" If a ? re breaks out, the ? re brigade comes; if a traf? c accident occurs, the insurance pays. This interplay between before and after, between security in the here-and-now and security in the future because one took precautions even for the worst imaginable case, has been revoked in the age of nuclear, chemical and genetic technology. In their brilliant perfection, nuclear power plants have suspended the principle of insurance not only in the economic but also in the medical, psychological, cultural, and religious sense. The ‘residual risk society’ is an uninsured society, in which protection, paradoxically, decreases as the threat increases. For Beck, modernity is a world that introduces global risk parameters that previous generations have not had to face. Precisely because of the failure of modern social institutions to control the risks they have created, such as the ecological crisis, risk rebounds as a largely defensive attempt to avoid new problems and dangers. Beck contends that it is necessary to separate the notion of risk from hazard or danger. The hazards of pre-industrial society – famines, plagues, natural disasters – may or may not come close to the destructive potential of technoscience in the contemporary era. Yet for Beck this really is not a key consideration in any event, since he does not wish to suggest that daily life in today’s risk society is intrinsically more hazardous than in the pre-modern world. What he does suggest, however, is that no notion of risk is to be found in traditional culture: pre-industrial hazards or dangers, no matter how potentially catastrophic, were experienced as pre-given. They came from some ‘other’ – gods, nature or demons. With the beginning of societal attempts to control, and particularly with the idea of steering towards a future of predictable security, the consequences of risk become a political issue. This last point is crucial. It is societal intervention – in the form of decision-making – that transforms incalculable hazards into calculable risks. ‘Risks’, writes Beck (1997: 30), ‘always depend on decisions – that is, they presuppose decisions’. The idea of ‘risk society’ is thus bound up with the development of instrumental rational control, which the process of modernization promotes in all spheres of life – from individual risk of accidents and illnesses to export risks and risks of war. In support of the contention that protection from danger decreases as the threat increases in the contemporary era, Beck (1994) discusses, among many other examples, the case of a lead crystal factory in the former Federal Republic of Germany. The factory in question – Altenstadt in the Upper Palatinate – was prosecuted in the 1980s for polluting the atmosphere. Many residents in the area had, for some considerable time, suffered from skin rashes, nausea and headaches, and blame was squarely attributed to the white dust emitted from the factory’s smokestacks. Due to the visibility of the pollution, the case for damages against the factory was imagined, by many people, to be watertight. Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. com by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 295 022761 Elliott 296 13/5/2002 Sociology 9:49 am Volume 36 s Page 296 Number 2 s May 2002 However, because there were three other glass factories in the area, the presiding judge offered to drop the charges in return for a nominal ? ne, on the grounds that individual liability for emitting dangerous pollutants and toxins could not be established. ‘Welcome to the real-life travesty of the hazard technocracy! ’ writes Beck, underlining the denial of risks within our cultural and political structures. Such denial for Beck is deeply layered within institutions, and he calls this ‘organized irresponsibility’ – a concept to which we will return. The age of nuclear, chemical and genetic technology, according to Beck, unleashes a destruction of the calculus of risks by which modern societies have developed a consensus on progress. Insurance has been the key to sustaining this consensus, functioning as a kind of security pact against industrially produced dangers and hazards. 3 In particular, two kinds of insurance are associated with modernization: the private insurance company and public insurance, linked above all with the welfare state. Yet the changing nature of risk in an age of globalization, argues Beck, fractures the calculating of risks for purposes of insurance. Individually and collectively, we do not fully know or understand many of the risks that we currently face, let alone can we attempt to calculate them accurately in terms of probability, compensation and accountability. In this connection, Beck emphasizes the following: s s s s risks today threaten irreparable global damage which cannot be limited, and hus the notion of monetary compensation is rendered obsolescent; in the case of the worst possible nuclear or chemical accident, any security monitoring of damages fails; accidents, now reconstituted as ‘events’ without beginning or end, break apart delimitations in space and time; notions of accountability collapse. Re? exive Modernization Beck develops his critique of modernity through an examination of the presuppositions of the sociology of modernization. Many mainstream sociological th eories remain marked, in his view, by a confusion of modernity with industrial society – seen in either positive or negative terms. This is true for functionalists and Marxists alike, especially in terms of their preoccupation with industrial achievement, adaptation, differentiation and rationalization. Indeed, Beck ? nds an ideology of progress concealed within dominant social theories that equate modernization with linear rationalization. From Marx through Parsons to Luhmann, modern society is constantly changing, expanding and transforming itself; it is clear that industrialism results in the using up of resources that are essential to the reproduction of society. But the most striking limitation of social theories that equate modernity with industrial society, according to Beck, lies in their lack of comprehension of the manner in which dangers to societal preservation and renewal in? ltrate the institutions, organizations and subsystems of modern society itself. Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. com by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 022761 Elliott 13/5/2002 :49 am Page 297 Beck’s sociology of risk Elliott In contrast to this grand consensus on modernization, Beck argues that we are between industrial society and advanced modernity, between simple modernization and re? exive modernization. As Beck (1996b: 28) develops these distinctions: In view of these two stages and their sequence, the concept of ‘re? exive modernization’ may be introduced. This precisely does not mean re? ection (as the adjective ‘re? exive’ seems to suggest), but above all self-confrontation. The transition from the industrial to the risk epoch of modernity occurs unintentionally, unseen, compulsively, in the course of a dynamic of modernization which has made itself autonomous, on the pattern of latent side-effects. One can almost say that the constellations of risk society are created because the self-evident truths of industrial society (the consensus on progress, the abstraction from ecological consequences and hazards) dominate the thinking and behaviour of human beings and institutions. Risk society is not an option which could be chosen or rejected in the course of political debate. It arises through the automatic operation of autonomous modernization processes which are blind and deaf to consequences and dangers. In total, and latently, these produce hazards which call into question – indeed abolish – the basis of industrial society. It is the autonomous, compulsive dynamic of advanced or re? exive modernization that, according to Beck, propels modern men and women into ‘self-confrontation’ with the consequences of risk that cannot adequately be addressed, measured, controlled or overcome, at least according to the standards of industrial society. Modernity’s blindness to the risks and dangers produced by modernization – all of which happens automatically and unre? ectingly, according to Beck – leads to societal self-confrontation: that is, the questioning of divisions between centres of political activity and the decision-making capacity of society itself. Society, in effect, seeks to reclaim ‘the political’ from its modernist relegation to the institutional sphere, and this, says Beck, is achieved primarily through sub-political means – that is, locating the politics of risk at the heart of forms of social and cultural life. Within the horizon of the opposition between old routine and new awareness of consequences and dangers’, writes Beck, ‘society becomes self-critical’ (1999b: 81). The prospects for arresting the dark sides of industrial progress and advanced modernization through re? exivity are routinely short-circuited, according to Beck, by the insidious in? uence of ‘organized irresponsibility’. Irresponsibility, as Beck uses the term, refers to a political contradiction of the self-jeopardization and self-endangerment of risk society. This is a contradiction between an emerging public awareness of risks produced by and within the social-institutional system on the one hand, and the lack of attribution of systemic risks to this system on the other. There is, in Beck’s reckoning, a constant denial of the suicidal tendency of risk society – ‘the system of organized irresponsibility’ – which manifests itself in, say, technically orientated legal procedures designed to satisfy rigorous causal proof of individual liability and guilt. This self-created dead end, in which culpability is passed off on to individuals Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. com by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 297 022761 Elliott 298 13/5/2002 Sociology 9:49 am Volume 36 s Page 298 Number 2 s May 2002 and thus collectively denied, is maintained through political ideologies of industrial fatalism: faith in progress, dependence on rationality and the rule of expert opinion. Individualization The arrival of advanced modernization is not wholly about risk; it is also about an expansion of choice. For if risks are an attempt to make the incalculable calculable, then risk-monitoring presupposes agency, choice, calculation and responsibility. In the process of re? exive modernization, Beck argues, more and more areas of life are released or disembedded from the hold of tradition. That is to say, people living in the modernized societies of today develop an increasing engagement with both the intimate and more public aspects of their lives, aspects that were previously governed by tradition or taken-forgranted norms. This set of developments is what Beck calls ‘individualization’, and its operation is governed by a dialectic of disintegration and reinvention. For example, the disappearance of tradition and the disintegration of previously existing social forms – ? xed gender roles, in? exible class locations, masculinist work models – forces people into making decisions about their own lives and future courses of action. As traditional ways of doing things become problematic, people must choose paths for a more rewarding life – all of which requires planning and rationalization, deliberation and engagement. An active engagement with the self, with the body, with relationships and marriage, with gender norms, and with work: this is the subjective backdrop of the risk society. The idea of individualization is the basis upon which Beck constructs his vision of a ‘new modernity’, of novel personal experimentation and cultural innovation against a social backdrop of risks, dangers, hazards, re? xivity, globalization. Yet the unleashing of experimentation and choice which individualization brings is certainly not without its problems. According to Beck, there are progressive and regressive elements to individualization; although, in analytical terms, these are extremely hard to disentangle. In personal terms, the gains of today’s individualization might be tomorrow’s limit ation, as advantage and progress turn into their opposite. A signal example of this is offered in The Normal Chaos of Love (1995), where Beck and Beck-Gernsheim re? ct on the role of technological innovation in medicine, and of how this impacts upon contemporary family life. Technological advancements in diagnostic and genetic testing on the unborn, they argue, create new parental possibilities, primarily in the realm of health monitoring. However, the very capacity for medical intervention is one that quickly turns into an obligation on parents to use such technologies in order to secure a sound genetic starting point for their offspring. Individualization is seen here as a paradoxical compulsion, at once leading people into a much more engaged relationship with science and technology than used to be the case, and enforcing a set of obligations and responsibilities that few in society have thought through in terms of broad Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. com by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 022761 Elliott 13/5/2002 9:49 am Page 299 Beck’s sociology of risk Elliott moral and ethical implications. It is perhaps little wonder therefore that Beck (1997: 96), echoing Sartre, contends that ‘people are condemned to individualization’. Critique Beck has elaborated a highly original formulation of the theory of risk, a formulation which links with, but in many ways is more sophisticated in its detail and application than, other sociological approaches to the analysis of risk environments in contemporary society (among other contributions, see Douglas and Wildavsky (1982), Castell (1991), Giddens (1990, 1991), Luhmann (1993) and Adam (1998)). Beck’s sociology of risk has clearly been of increasing interest to sociologists concerned with understanding the complex temporal and spatial ? gurations of invisible hazards and dangers including global warming, chemical and petrochemical pollution, the effects of genetically modi? ed organisms and culturally induced diseases such as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) (see Lash et al. , 1996; Adam, 1998). In what follows, there are three core areas around which I shall develop a critique of the work of Beck: (1) risk, re? xivity, re? ection; (2) power and domination; and (3) tradition, modernity and postmodernization. Risk, Re? exivity, Re? ection Let me begin with Beck’s discussion of the ‘risk society’, which, according to him, currently dominates socio-political frames thanks to the twin forces of re? exivity and globalization. There are, I believe, many respects in which Beck’s vision of Risikogesellschaft, especially its rebounding in pers onal experience as risk-laden discourses and practices, is to be welcomed. In the wake of the Chernobyl disaster and widespread environmental pollution, and with ever more destructive weapons as well as human-made biological, chemical and technological hazards, it is surely the case that thinking in terms of risk has become central to the way in which human agents and modern institutions organize the social world. Indeed, in a world that could literally destroy itself, risk-managing and risk-monitoring increasingly in? uences both the constitution and calculation of social action. As mentioned previously, it is this focus on the concrete, objective physical-biological-technical risk settings of modernity which recommends Beck’s analysis as a useful corrective to the often obsessive abstraction and textual deconstruction that characterizes much recent social theory. However, one still might wonder whether Beck’s theory does not overemphasize, in a certain sense, the phenomena and relevance of risk. From a social-historical perspective it is plausible to ask, for instance, whether life in society has become more risky? In ‘From Regulation to Risk’, Bryan S. Turner (1994: 180–1) captures the problem well: Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. com by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 299 022761 Elliott 300 13/5/2002 Sociology 9:49 am Volume 36 s Page 300 Number 2 s May 2002 [A] serious criticism of Beck’s arguments would be to suggest that risk has not changed so profoundly and signi? cantly over the last three centuries. For example, were the epidemics of syphilis and bubonic plague in earlier periods any different from the modern environment illnesses to which Beck draws our attention? That is, do Beck’s criteria of risk, such as their impersonal and unobservable nature, really stand up to historical scrutiny? The devastating plagues of earlier centuries were certainly global, democratic and general. Peasants and aristocrats died equally horrible deaths. In addition, with the spread of capitalist colonialism, it is clearly the case that in previous centuries many aboriginal peoples such as those of North America and Australia were engulfed by environmental, medical and political catastrophes which wiped out entire populations. If we take a broader view of the notion of risk as entailing at least a strong cultural element whereby risk is seen to be a necessary part of the human condition, then we could argue that the profound uncertainties about life, which occasionally overwhelmed earlier civilizations, were not unlike the anxieties of our own ? n-de-siecle civilizations. Extending Turner’s critique, it might also be asked whether risk assessment is the ultimate worry in the plight of individuals in contemporary culture? Is it right to see the means-ended rationality of risk, and thus the economistic language of preference, assessment and choice, as spreading into personal and intimate spheres of life (such as marriage, friendship and child-rearing) in such a determinate and uni? ed way? And does the concept of risk actually capture what is new and different in the contemporary social condition? I shall not pursue these general questions, important though they are, here. Instead, the issue I want to raise concerns the multiple ways in which risk is perceived, approached, engaged with or disengaged from, in contemporary culture. Beck’s approach, however suggestive it may be, is at best a signpost which points to speci? c kinds of probabilities, avoidances and unanticipated consequences, but which is limited in its grasp of the social structuring of the perception of risk. The American social theorist Jeffrey C. Alexander (1996: 135) has argued that Beck’s ‘unproblematic understanding of the perception of risk is utilitarian and objectivist’. Alexander takes Beck to task for adopting a rationalistic and instrumental-calculative model of risk in microsocial and macrosocial worlds; to which it can be added that such a model has deep af? ities with neo-classical economics and rational-choice theory, and thus necessarily shares the conceptual and political limitations of these standpoints also. Beck has also been criticized by others for his cognitive realism, moral proceduralism and lack of attention to aesthetic and hermeneutical subjectivity (Lash and Urry, 1994); failure to acknowle dge the embodied nature of the self (Turner, 1994; Petersen, 1996); and neglect of the psychodynamic and affective dimensions of subjectivity and intersubjective relations (Elliott, 1996; Hollway and Jefferson, 1997). In a social-theoretical frame of reference, what these criticisms imply is that Beck’s theory cannot grasp the hermeneutical, aesthetic, psychological and culturally bounded forms of subjectivity and intersubjectivity in and through Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. com by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 022761 Elliott 13/5/2002 9:50 am Page 301 Beck’s sociology of risk Elliott which risk is constructed and perceived. To study risk-management and riskavoidance strategies, in the light of these criticisms, requires attention to forms of meaning-making within socio-symbolically inscribed institutional ? elds, a problem to which I return in a subsequent section when looking at Beck’s analysis of tradition, modernity and postmodernity. In raising the issue of the construction and reconstruction of risk – in particular, its active interpretation and reconstruction – one might reference numerous studies of socio-political attitudes relating to the conceptualization and confrontation of risk, danger and hazard. The anthropologist Mary Douglas (1986, 1992), for example, argues that advanced industrial risks are primarily constructed through the rhetoric of purity and pollution. For Douglas, what is most pressing in the social-theoretic analysis of risk is an understanding of how human agents ignore many of the potential threats of daily life and instead concentrate only on selected aspects. Interestingly, Beck fails to discuss in any detail Douglas’s anthropology of risk. This would seem peculiar not only since Douglas’s path-breaking analyses of risk appear to have laid much of the thematic groundwork for Beck’s sociological theory, but also because her work is highly relevant to the critique of contemporary ideologies of risk – that is, the social forms in which risk and uncertainty are differentiated across and within social formations, as well as peculiarly individuated. My purpose in underscoring these various limitations of Beck’s theory is not to eng age in some exercise of conceptual clari? cation. My concern rather is to stress the sociologically questionable assumptions concerning risk in Beck’s work, and to tease out the more complex, nuanced forms of risk perception that might fall within the scope of such an approach. To call into question Beck’s notion of risk is, of course, also to raise important issues about the location of re? exivity between self and societal reproduction. Now it is the failure of simple, industrial society to control the risks it has created, which, for Beck, generates a more intensive and extensive sense of risk in re? xive, advanced modernity. In this sense, the rise of objective, physical, global risks propels social re? exivity. But again one might wish to question the generalizations Beck makes about human agents, modern institutions and culture becoming more re? exive or self-confronting. Much of Beck’s work has been concerned to emphasize the degree of re? exive institutional dynamism involved in the restructuring of pers onal, social and political life, from the reforging of intimate relationships to the reinvention of politics. But there are disturbing dimensions here as well, which the spread of cultural, ethnic, racial and gendered con? ict has shown only too well, and often in ways in which one would be hard pressed to ? nd forms of personal or social re? exive activity. No doubt Beck would deny – as he has done in his more recent writings – that the renewal of traditions and the rise of cultural con? icts are counterexamples to the thesis of re? exive modernization. For we need to be particularly careful, Beck contends, not to confuse re? exivity (self-dissolution) with re? ction (knowledge). As Beck (1994b: 176–7) develops this distinction: Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. com by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 301 022761 Elliott 302 13/5/2002 Sociology 9:50 am Volume 36 s Page 302 Number 2 s May 2002 †¦ the ‘re? exivity’ of modernity and modernization in my sense does not mean re? ection on modernity, self-relatedness, the self-referentiality of modernity, nor does it mean the self-justi? ation or self-criticism of modernity in the sense of classical sociology; rather (? rst of all), modernization undercuts modernization, unintended and unseen, and therefore also re? ection-free, with the force of autonomized modernization. †¦ [R]e? exivity of modernity can lead to re? ection on the self-dissolution and self-endangerment of industrial society, but it need not do so. Thus, re? exivity does not imply a kind of hyper-Enlightenment culture, where agents and institutions re? ect on modernity, but rather an unintended self-modi? ation of forms of life driven by the impact of autonomized processes of modernization. Re? exivity, on this account, is de? ned as much by ‘re? ex’ as it is by ‘re? ection’. ‘It is possible to detect’, write Lash et al. (1996) of Beck’s recent sociology, Ã¢â‚¬Ë œa move towards seeing re? exive modernization as in most part propelled by blind social processes – a shift, crudely, from where risk society produces re? ection which in turn produces re? exivity and critique, to one where risk society automatically produces re? exivity, and then – perhaps – re? ection’. Without wishing to deny the interest of this radical conception of re? exivity as self-dissolution, it still seems to me that Beck’s contention that contemporary societies are propelled toward self-confrontation, split between re? ex and re? ection, remains dubious. In what sense, for instance, can one claim that re? ection-free forms of societal self-dissolution exist independently of the re? ective capacities of human agents? For what, exactly, is being dissolved, if not the forms of life and social practices through which institutions are structured? How might the analytical terms of re? exivity, that is social re? exes (nonknowledge) and re? ection (knowledge), be reconciled? It may be thought that these dif? culties can be overcome by insisting, along with Beck, on re? exivity in the strong sense – as the unseen, the unwilled, the unintended; in short, institutional dynamism. But such an account of blind social processes is surely incompatible with, and in fact renders incoherent, concepts of re? ection, referentiality, re? exivity. Alternatively, a weaker version of the argument might be developed, one that sees only partial and contextual interactions of selfdissolution and re? ection. Yet such an account, again, would seem to cut the analytical ground from under itself, since there is no adequate basis for showing how practices of re? exivity vary in their complex articulations of re? ex and re? ection or repetition and creativity. Power and Domination I now want to consider Beck’s theory in relation to sociological understandings of power and domination. According to Beck, re? xive modernization combats many of the distinctive characteristics of power, turning set social divisions into active negotiated relationships. Traditional political con? icts, centred around class, race and gender, are increasingly superseded by new, globalized risk con? icts. ‘Risks’, writes Beck (1992: 35), ‘display an equalizing effect’. Everyone Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. com by Madhu Men on on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 022761 Elliott 13/5/2002 9:50 am Page 303 Beck’s sociology of risk Elliott ow is threatened by risk of global proportions and repercussions; not even the rich and powerful can escape the new dangers and hazards of, say, global warming or nuclear war. And it is from this universalized perspective that Beck argues political power and domination is shedding the skin of its classical forms and reinventing itself in a new global idiom. The problematic nature of Beck’s writings on this reinvention of political power and its role in social life, however, becomes increasingly evident when considering his analysis of social inequalities and cultural divisions. Take, for example, his re? ections on class. Re? exive modernization, says Beck, does not result in the self-destruction of class antagonisms, but rather in selfmodi? cation. He writes (1997: 26): Re? exive modernization disembeds and re-embeds the cultural prerequisites of social classes with forms of individualization of social inequality. That means †¦ that the disappearance of social classes and the abolition of social inequality no longer coincide. Instead, the blurring of social classes (in perception) runs in tandem with an exacerbation of social inequality, which now does not follow large identi? ble groups in the lifeworld, but is instead fragmented across (life) phases, space and time. The present-day individualizing forces of social inequality, according to Beck, erode class-consciousness (personal dif? culties and grievances no longer culminate into group or collective causes) and also, to some considerable degree, class-in-itself (contemporary social problems are in creasingly suffered alone). In short, class as a community of fate or destiny declines steeply. With class solidarities replaced by brittle and uncertain forms of individual self-management, Beck ? ds evidence for a ‘rule-altering rationalization’ of class relationships in new business and management practices, as well as industrial relations reforms. He contends that new blendings of economics and democracy are discernible in the rise of political civil rights within the workplace, a blend which opens the possibility of a post-capitalistic world – a ‘classless capitalism of capital’, in which ‘the antagonism between labour and capital will collapse’. There is considerable plausibility in the suggestion that class patterns and divisions have been altered by rapid social and political changes in recent years. These include changes in employment and the occupational structure, the expansion of the service industries, rising unemployment, lower retirement ages, as well as a growing individualization in the West together with an accompanying stress upon lifestyle, consumption and choice. However, while it might be the case that developments associated with re? exive modernization and the risk society are affecting social inequalities, it is surely implausible to suggest, as Beck does, that this involves the trans? guration of class as such. Why, as Scott Lash (Beck et al. , 1994: 211) asks, do we ? nd re? xivity in some sectors of socio-economic life and not others? Against the backdrop of new communication technologies and advances in knowledge transfer, vast gaps in the sociocultural conditions of the wealthy and the poor drastically affect the ways in which individuals are drawn into the project of re? exive modernization. These Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. com by Madhu Menon on S eptember 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 303 022761 Elliott 304 13/5/2002 Sociology 9:50 am Volume 36 s Page 304 Number 2 s May 2002 ensions are especially evident today in new social divisions between the ‘information rich’ and ‘information poor’, and of the forces and demands of such symbolic participation within the public sphere. What Beck fails to adequately consider is that individualization (while undoubtedly facilitating unprecedented forms of personal and social experimentation) may directly contribute to, and advance the proliferation of, class inequalities and economic exclusions. That is to say, Beck fails to give suf? cient sociological weight to the possibility that individualization may actually embody systematically asymmetrical relations of class power. Taken from a broader view of the ideals of equal opportunity and social progress, Beck’s arguments about the relationship between advanced levels of re? exivity and the emergence of a new sub-politics do not adequately stand up to scrutiny. The general, tendential assertions he advances about business and organizational restructuring assume what needs to be demonstrated – namely, that these new organizational forms spell the demise of social class, as well as the viability of class analysis. Moreover, it seems implausible to point to ‘subpolitics’, de? ned by Beck only in very general terms, as symptomatic of a new socio-political agenda. When, for example, have the shifting boundaries between the political and economic spheres not played a primary role in the unfolding of relations between labour and capital? Is decision-making and consciousness really focused on a post-capitalistic rationalization of rights, duties, interests and decisions? A good deal of recent research shows, on the contrary, that income inequality between and within nations continues to escalate (Braun, 1991; Lemert, 1997); that class (together with structures of power and domination) continues to profoundly shape possible life chances and material nterests (Westergaard, 1995); and that the many different de? nitions of class as a concept, encompassing the marginal, the excluded as well as the new underclass or new poor, are important in social analysis for comprehending the persistence of patterns of social inequality (Crompton, 1996). These dif? culties would suggest that Beck’s theory of risk requires reformulation in various ways. Without wishing to deny that the risk-generating propensity of the social system has rapidly increased in recent years due to the impact of globalization and techno-science, it seems to me misleading to contend that social division in multinational capitalist societies is fully trans? gured into a new logic of risk, as if the latter disconnects the former from its institutionalized biases and processes. The more urgent theoretical task, I suggest, is to develop methods of analysis for explicating how patterns of power and domination feed into, and are reconstituted by, the socio-symbolic structuring of risk. Here I shall restrict myself to noting three interrelated forces, which indicate, in a general way, the contours of how a politics of risk is undergoing transformation. The ? rst development is that of the privatization of risk. Underpinned by new trans-national spatializations of economic relations as well as the deregulation of the government of political life (Giddens, 1990; Hirst and Thompson, 1996; Bauman, 1998), the individual is increasingly viewed today as an active Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. om by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 022761 Elliott 13/5/2002 9:50 am Page 305 Beck’s sociology of risk Elliott agent in the risk-monitoring of collectively produced dangers; risk-information, risk-detection and risk-management is more and more constructed and designed as a matter of private responsibility and personal security. By and large, human agents confron t socially produced risks individually. Risk is desocialized; risk-exposure and risk-avoidance is a matter of individual responsibility and navigation. This is, of course, partly what Beck means by the individualization of risk. However, the relations between individualized or privatized risk, material inequalities and the development of global poverty are more systematic and complex than Beck’s theory seems to recognize. In the post-war period, the shift from Keynesian to monetarist economic policies has been a key factor in the erosion of the management of risk through welfare security. The impact of globalization, transnational corporations and governmental deregulation is vital to the social production of the privatization of risk, all of which undoubtedly has a polarizing effect on distributions of wealth and income. It has also become evident – and this is crucial – that one must be able to deploy certain educational resources, symbolic goods, cultural and media capabilities, as well as cognitive and affective aptitudes, in order to count as a ‘player’ in the privatization of risk-detection and risk-management. People who cannot deploy such resources and capabilities, often the result of various material and class inequalities, are likely to ? nd themselves further disadvantaged and marginalized in a new world order of re? exive modernization. The second, related development concerns the commodi? cation of risk. Millions of dollars are made through product development, advertising, and market research in the new industries of risk, which construct new problems and market new solutions for risk-? ghting individual agents. As risk is simultaneously proliferated and rendered potentially manageable’, writes Nikolas Rose (1996: 342), ‘the private market for â€Å"security† extends: not merely personal pension schemes and private health insurance, but burglar alarms, devices that monitor sleeping children, home testing kits for cholesterol levels and much more. Protection against risk through an investment in security becomes part of the responsibilities of each active individ ual, if they are not to feel guilt at failing to protect themselves and their loved ones against future misfortunes’. In other words, the typical means for insuring against risk today is through market-promoted processes. However the fundamental point here, and this is something that Beck fails to develop in a systematic manner, is that such ‘insurance’ is of a radically imaginary kind (with all the misrecognition and illusion that the Lacanian-Althusserian theorization of the duplicate mirror-structure of ideology implies), given that one cannot really buy one’s way out of the collective dangers that confront us as individuals and societies. How does one, for example, buy a way out from the dangers of global warming? The commodi? cation of risk has become a kind of safe house for myths, fantasies, ? ction and lies. The third development concerns the instrumentalization of identities in terms of lifestyle, consumption and choice. Beck touches on this issue through the individualization strand of his argument. Yet because he sees individualiza- Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. com by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 305 022761 Elliott 306 13/5/2002 Sociology 9:50 am Volume 36 s Page 306 Number 2 s May 2002 ion as an active process transforming risk society, he pays almost no attention to the kinds of affective ‘investments’, often destructive and pathological, unleashed by an instrumentalization of identities and social relations. Of core importance here is the ‘culture of narcissism’ (Lasch, 1980) which pervades contemporary Western life, and plays a powerful ro le in the instrumental affective investments in individuals which a risk society unleashes. Joel Kovel (1988) writes of ‘the de-sociation of the narcissistic character’, a character lacking in depth of emotional attachment to others and communities. Unable to sustain a sense of personal purpose or social project, the narcissistic character, writes Kovel, rarely moves beyond instrumentality in dealing with other people. Such instrumental emotional investments may well be increasingly central to the management of many risk codes in contemporary culture. Consider the ways in which some parents fashion a narcissistic relation with their own children as a kind of imaginary risk-insurance (involving anxieties and insecurities over old age, mortality and the like), rather than relating to their offspring as independent individuals in their own right. Also in risks relating to the home, personal comfort as well as safety, hygiene, health and domesticity, the veneer-like quality of pathological narcissism can be found. Some analytical caution is, of course, necessary here, primarily because the work on narcissistic culture of Lasch and Sennett, among others, has been criticized in terms of over-generalization (Giddens, 1991: 174–80). Accordingly, it may be more plausible to suggest that narcissistic forms of identity are a tendency within contemporary cultural relations of risk management, and not a wholesale social trend. Beck’s writings, I am suggesting, are less than satisfying on issues of power and domination because he fails to analyse in suf? cient depth the psychological, sociological and political forces by means of which the self-risk dialectic takes its varying forms. To develop a more nuanced interpretative and critical approach, I have suggested, the sociological task is to analyse privatization, commodi? cation and instrumentalization as channels of risk management. Tradition, Modernity, Postmodernity The limitations in the concept of re? xivity I have highlighted are, in turn, connected to further ambiguities concerning the nature of social reproduction in contemporary culture. The production and reproduction of contemporary social life is viewed by Beck as a process of ‘detraditionalization’. The development of re? exive modernization, says Beck, is accompanied by an irreversible decline in the role of tradition; the re? exivity of modernity and modernization means t hat traditional forms of life are increasingly exposed to public scrutiny and debate. That the dynamics of social re? xivity undercut pre-existing traditions is emphasized by Beck via a range of social-theoretical terms. He speaks of ‘the age of side-effects’, of individualization, and of a sub-politics beyond left and right – a world in which people can and must come to terms with the opportunities and dangers of new technologies, markets, experts, systems and Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. com by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 022761 Elliott 13/5/2002 9:50 am Page 307 Beck’s sociology of risk Elliott nvironments. Beck thus argues that the contemporary age is one characterized by increased levels of referentiality, ambivalence, ? exibility, openness and social alternatives. It might be noted that certain parallels can be identi? ed between t he thesis of detraditionalization and arguments advanced in classical social theory. Many classical social theorists believed that the development of the modern era spelled the end of tradition. ‘All that is solid melts into air’, said Marx of the power of the capitalist mode of production to tear apart traditional forms of social life. That the dynamics of capitalism undercut its own foundations meant for Marx a society that was continually transforming and constantly revolutionizing itself. Somewhat similar arguments about the decline of tradition can be found in the writings of Max Weber. The development of industrial society for Weber was inextricably intertwined with the rise of the bureaucratic state. Weber saw in this bureaucratic rationalization of action, and associated demand for technical ef? ciency, a new social logic destructive of the traditional texture of society. The views of Marx and Weber, among others, thus advanced a general binary opposition of ‘the traditional’ and ‘the modern’. For proponents of the thesis of detraditionalization, such as Beck, the self-referentiality and social re? exivity of advanced modernity also necessarily implies that traditional beliefs and practices begin to break down. However, the thesis of detraditionalization is not premised upon the broad contrast between ‘the traditional’ and ‘the modern’ that we can discern in much classical social theory. On the contrary, Beck ? nds the relation between tradition and modernity at once complex and puzzling. If tradition remains an important aspect of advanced modernity, it is because tradition becomes re? exive; traditions are invented, reinvented and restructured in conditions of the late modern age. So far I think that there is much that is interesting and important in this general orientation of Beck to understanding the construction of the present, past and future. In particular, I think the stress placed upon the re? exive construction of tradition, and indeed all social reproduction, is especially signi? cant – even though I shall go on to argue that this general theoretical framework requires more speci? ation and elaboration. I want, however, to focus on a speci? c issue raised by Beck’s social theory, and ask, has the development of society toward advanced modernization been accompanied by a decline in the in? uence of tradition and traditional understandings of the past? Must we assume, as Beck seems to, that the social construction of tradition is always permeat ed by a pervasive re? exivity? At issue here, I suggest, is the question of how the concept of re? exivity should be related to traditional, modern and postmodern cultural forms. I shall further suggest that the concept of re? xivity, as elaborated by Beck, fails to comprehend the different modernist and postmodernist ? gurations that may be implicit within social practices and symbolic forms of the contemporary age. In order to develop this line of argumentation, let us consider in some more detail the multiplicity of world traditions, communities and cultures as they impact upon current social practices and life-strategies. I believe that Beck is Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. com by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 07 022761 Elliott 308 13/5/2002 Sociology 9:50 am Volume 36 s Page 308 Number 2 s May 2002 right to emphasize the degree to which modernity and advanced mo dernization processes have assaulted traditions, uprooted local communities and broken apart unique regional, ethnic and sub-national cultures. At the level of economic analysis, an argument can plausibly be sustained that the erratic nature of the world capitalist economy produces high levels of unpredictability and uncertainty in social life and cultural relations, all of which Beck analyses in terms of danger, risk and hazard. It is worth noting, however, that Beck’s emphasis on increasing levels of risk, ambivalence and uncertainty is at odds with much recent research in sociology and social theory that emphasizes the regularization and standardization of daily life in the advanced societies. George Ritzer’s The McDonaldization of Society (1993) is a signal example. Drawing Weber’s theory of social rationalization and the Frankfurt School’s account of the administered society into a re? ctive encounter, Ritzer examines the application of managerial techniques such as Fordism and Taylorism to the fast food industry as symptomatic of the in? ltration of instrumental rationality into all aspects of cultural life. McDonaldization, as Ritzer develops the term, is the emergence of social logics in which risk and unpredictability are written out of social space. The point about such a conception of the standardization of everyday life, whatever its conceptual and sociological shortcom ings, is that it clearly contradicts Beck’s stress on increasing risk and uncertainty, the concept of re? xive individualization, and the notion that detraditionalization produces more ambivalence, more anxiety, and more openness. Of course, Beck insists that re? exive modernization does not mark a complete break from tradition; rather re? exivity signals the revising, or reinvention, of tradition. However, the resurgence and persistence of ethnicity and nationality as a primary basis for the elaboration of traditional beliefs and practices throughout the world is surely problematic for those who, like Beck, advance the general thesis of social re? exivity. Certainly, the thesis would appear challenged by widespread and recently revitalized patterns of racism, sexism and nationalism which have taken hold in many parts of the world, and indeed many serious controversies over race, ethnicity and nationalism involve a reversion to what might be called traditionalist battles over traditional culture – witness the rise of various religious fundamentalisms in the United States, the Middle East and parts of Africa and Asia. These political and theoretical ambivalences have their roots in a number of analytical dif? ulties, speci? cally Beck’s diagnosis of simple and advanced modernity. Beck furnishes only the barest social-historical sketch of simple modernity as a distinctive period in the spheres of science, industry, morality and law. He underscores the continuing importance and impact of simple industrial society for a range of advanced, re? exive determinations (for example politically, economically, technologically and envi ronmentally), yet the precise relations of such overlapping are not established or demonstrated in any detail. Exactly how we have moved into the age of re? exive modernization, although often stated and repeated, is not altogether clear. Beck’s main line of explanation seems to focus on the side-effects of modernization as undercutting the Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. com by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 022761 Elliott 13/5/2002 9:50 am Page 309 Beck’s sociology of risk Elliott foundations of modernity. But, again, the dynamics of simple and re? xive modernization, together with their social-historical periodization, remain opaque. In addition, it is not always clear how Beck is intending to draw certain conceptual distinctions between ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ instantiations of respectively simple and advanced modernist socio-symbolic figurations. Rejecting outright any crude opposition between traditional and modern societies, Beck r elates a tale of the proliferation of re? exive biographies and practices, lives and institutions, in which creative possibilities develop and new forms of risk and hazard take shape. Yet social advancement is far from inevitable: Beck speaks of counter-modernities. The question that needs to be asked here, however, is whether it is analytically useful for social theory to construct the contemporary age as characterized by interacting tropes of industrial society and re? exive modernization on the one side, and a range of countermodernities on the other. Viewed from the frame of postmodern social theory, and in particular the sociology of postmodernity (see Bauman, 1992a), Beck’s argument concerning the circularity of the relationship between risk, re? xivity and social knowledge appears in a more problematic, and perhaps ultimately inadequate, light. For postmodern social theorists and cultural analysts diagnose the malaise of present-day society not only as the result of re? exively applied knowledge to complex techno-scienti? c social environments, but as infused by a more general and pervasive sense of cultural disorientation. The most prominent anxieti es that underpin postmodern dynamics of social regulation and systemic reproduction include a general loss of belief in the engine of progress, as well as feelings of out-of-placeness and loss of direction. Such anxieties or dispositions are accorded central signi? cance in the writings of a number of French theorists – notably, Foucault, Derrida, Lyotard, Baudrillard, and Deleuze and Guattari – and also in the work of sociologists and social scientists interested in the rami? cations of post-structuralism, semiotics and deconstruction for the analysis of contemporary society (Lash and Urry, 1987; Harvey, 1989; Poster, 1990; Best and Kellner, 1991; Smart, 1992, 1993; Bauman, 1992a, 2000; Elliott, 1996). Postmodern anxieties or dispositions are, broadly speaking, cast as part of a broader cultural reaction to universal modernism’s construction of the social world, which privileges rationalism, positivism and techno-scienti? c planning. Premised upon a vigorous philosophical denunciation of humanism, abstract reason, and the Enlightenment legacy, postmodern theory rejects the metanarratives of modernity (that is, totalistic theoretical constructions, allegedly of universal application) and instead embraces fragmentation, discontinuity and ambiguity as symptomatic of current cultural conditions. To express the implications of these theoretical departures more directly in terms of the current discussion, if the social world in which we live in the 21st century is signi? cantly different from that of the simple modernization, this is so because of both socio-political and epistemological developments. It is not only re? ection on the globalization of risk that has eroded faith in humanly engineered progress. Postmodern contributions stress that the plurality of Downloaded from http://soc. sagepub. om by Madhu Menon on September 24, 2007  © 2002 BSA Publications Ltd.. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 309 022761 Elliott 310 13/5/2002 Sociology 9:50 am Volume 36 s Page 310 Number 2 s May 2002 heterogeneous claims to knowledge carries radical consequences for the unity and coherence of social systems. Bluntly stated, a number of core issues are identi? ed by postmodern analysts in this connection: s s s The crisis of representation, insta bilities of meaning, and fracturing of knowledge claims; The failure of the modernist project to ground epistemology in secure foundations; The wholesale transmutation in modes of representation within social life itself. Postmodernization in this context spells the problematization of the relationship between signi? er and referent, representation and reality, a relationship made all the more complex by the computerization of information and knowledge (Poster, 1990). What I am describing as a broadly postmodern sociological viewpoint highlights the de? iency of placing ‘risk’ (or any other sociological variable) as the central paradox of modernity. For at a minimum, a far wider range of sources would appear to condition our current cultural malaise. What is signi? cant about these theoretical sightings, or glimpses, of the contours of postmodernity as a social system are that they lend themselves to global horizons and de? nitions more adequately than the so-called universalism of Beck’s sociology of risk. Against a theoretical backdrop of the break with foundationalism, the dispersion of language games, coupled with the recognition that history has no overall teleology, it is surely implausible to stretch the notion of risk as a basis for interpretation of phenomena from, say, an increase in worldwide divorce rates through to the collapse of insurance as a principle for the regulation of collective life. Certainly, there may exist some family resemblance in trends surrounding new personal, social and political agendas. Yet the seeds of personal transformation and social dislocation are likely to be a good deal more complex, multiple, discontinuous. This is why the change of mood – intellectual, social, cultural, psychological, political and economic – analysed by postmodern theorists has more far-reaching consequences for sociological analysis and research into modernity and postmodernization than does the work of Beck. In Beck’s sociology, the advent of advanced modernization is related to the changing social and technological dimensions of just one institutional sector: that of risk and its calculation. The key problem of re? exive modernization is one of living with a high degree of risk in a world where traditional safety nets (the welfare state, traditional nuclear family, etc. ) are being eroded or dismantled. But what is How to cite Ulrich Beck, Papers